Mysore conquest and Anglo Mysore wars

   

Mysore conquest

  • Mysore province was initially part of Vijayanagara Empire created by 'Sri Krishna Devaraya' with Srirangapatnam as capital. Mysore was under the control of Nayakas (Governor of Vijayanagara of Mysore region are called Nayakas).
  • Wadeyar; a nayaka declared independence after the end of Vijayanagara Empire. From 1610 to 1947 Mysore was ruled by Wadeyar dynasty, of course, there were two interruptions in the rule from 1761 to 1799 by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan and 1831 to 1881 by British.

Hyder Ali

  • Hyder Ali ruled Mysore from 1761 to 1782. Hyder Ali had very humble background was very poor and illiterate person. He joined the wadeyar army as a petty soldier. Due to his efficiency and his skills displayed in various wars, he was appointed as 'Faujdar of Dindigal' (Dist level post). At Dindigal, he started a modern arsenal and increased his muscle thereafter dismissed then Wadeyar King 'Chikki Krishnaraya Wadeyar' and establishing Muslim rule in Mysore province. King was not killed but put in a sort of house arrest.
  • During Hyder Ali reign Mysore region was expanded in leaps and bounds. He followed a policy of annexation fighting many wars in the process of conquering. He conquered Krishna-Tungabhadra region from Marathas, Rayalaseerna up to Tirupati from Nizams and other territories in Tamil Nadu also. He was a man of religious tolerance. He gave large endowments to Balaji temple in Tirupati. He continual printing of Shiva and Parvati on the coins as done by Wadeyars earlier. Somehow there was a dispute between Hyder Ali and British which led to two Anglo-Mysore wars.

First anglo Mysore war

  • This war was fought from 1766 to 1769 among Hyder Ali and then Madras governor 'Lord McCartney'. Many battles were fought either losing or winning by one another. Both parties got exhausted and war concluded with 'Treaty of Madras' which says Prewar status quo to be maintained. After this, there was a certain relief in either party till next war was fought.

Second Anglo-Mysore war

  • This war was fought from 1780 to 1784 among Hyder Ali and First Governor General 'Warren Hastings'. During the course of war in 1782, Hyder Ali died due to Cancer, a natural death. So his son Tippu Sultan continued war. Both parties again got exhausted and war was concluded with a ceasefire 'Treaty of Mangalore' which says to maintain pre-war status quo.

Tippu Sultan

  • Tippu Sultan inherited the throne immediately after the death of his father and came to power in 1782 ruled till 1799. He was the most formidable enemy to British. He gave tough resistance to British than any other ruler. So he is popularly known as 'Sher-e-Mysore' (Tiger of Mysore).
  • He abolished Zamindari system; introduced a new calendar; and also printed a new gold coin (Mohur); also, set up modern industries; a network of highways was built especially in Malabar region. He  suppressed all Polegars (warlords); [Polegars are initially maintained Vijayanagara rulers in RayalaSeema region. Polegars are expected to maintain a certain army and these shall fight for the king. Initially, this was good but of late there were differences between each polegar and group rivalry, started that is factionalism. Each group attacked either of them in the process of retaliation. This is even now flourishing in this region].
  • Mangalore has become chief port of export for Spices of Kerala and Sandalwood of Mysore region. To promote foreign trade he sent his envoys to China, Iran, Turkey, Burma, France and etc.
  • He maintained very cordial relationships with French of Mahe as well as France. With their help, he started modernizing and strengthening the military. He became a member of Jacobin political party which in 1789 led French revolution. Being a monarch he didn't support a co-monarch but he supported people of France. He also celebrated the triumph of revolution by planting a tree named 'Liberty' at Srirangapatnam.
  • He was a literate and scholar in many languages, unlike his father. He had a great library in his palace where books of various languages across the world are shelved. British were astonished by his intellect skills and books were little later taken away by them to Calcutta.
  • He was also a religious tolerant man just like his father. He followed a policy of secularism. One best example was he had built his palace in the vicinity of Ranganatha temple (built by Vijayanagara rulers) so that the chanting of sanctum santorum could reach his ear in the dawn which is very good way to start a day. He also gave huge donations to Sringeri Sarada temple which were looted by Maratha kings later. Somehow there were no friendly relations between Tippu Sultan and British Which led to two more Anglo-Mysore wars.

Third Anglo-Mysore war

  • This was fought from 1790 to 1792. Tippu Sultan on one side and another side a confederation of Govern general Lord Cornwallis along- with Nizam Ali, Nawab of Nizam and Maratha King were fighting.[Nizmas were supporting British its - their territory was occupied by Hyder Ali and same with Marathas. This has been the with every ruler of Indian states who were rivals among themselves non-supporting to each other which turned advantage to British]. Tippu Sultan gave tough resistance but could not withstand finally defeated. Then war was concluded with a 'Treaty of Sriranzanatnam'. This is no status quo treaty but a humiliating treaty to 'Sher-e-Mysore'.
  • Few provisions were
- 50% of the kingdom was taken away and shared among the confederation. [Krishna-Tungabhadra region to Marathas, Rayalaseerna to Nizams and rest of remaining territory in 50% like Baramahal in Tamil Nadu were taken by British].
- 3 crore rupees of war indemnity shall be paid by Tippu Sultan in easy installments and as a guarantee, his 2 sons were taken to Bengal.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore war


  • Tippu Sultan was not a person of cowardice. He doesn't want to sit pressing his hands so he retaliated so as a result a war was fought in 1799. Governor General Lord Wellesley wants to exterminate Tippu Sultan completely as his any existence further would bring perils to British.
  • Reason British felt danger was because his relation with French and other Kings. Tippu had great international relations. He wrote letters to all anti-British rulers around the world. He wrote to Afghan ruler 'Zarnanshah' and also to Napoleon Bonaparte inviting them to India. If they had come British would have reduced to debris.
  • In this war, Tippu was not only defeated but also killed at Sri Rangapatnam. After his death, Wellesley out of huge empire of Mysore, Empire created a small state comprising Mysore, Srirangapatnam, and neighboring areas and made (Chikki Krishnaraya Wadeyar III as King. This area was very insignificant and rest territory 90% was annexed to British sovereign. Original ,territory of Wadeyars was given back to them but not the conquered parts. By doing so, British claimed themselves as righteous rulers. They only got rid of de facto and usurped rulers but not the genuine inheritors.
  • This transfer of territory was not unconditional and that is never British policy. Here Wadeyars were asked to sign a subsidiary alliance. In 1799, CK II signed and got Mysore territory.

Subsidiary Alliance


  • This is an imperial scheme developed by Lord Wellesley in the year 1778 and primary objective was to bring Indian states under the authority of British without waging wars. Certain provisions of this were
- Once it is signed, British shall give complete protection to that signatory state. The powerful military cover is given to Wing from any revolt or invade.
- In order to give protection, subsidiary forces are maintained in the capital exclusively for the protection of the signatory state.
- The entire cost of maintenance shall be paid by the signatory state either in cash to British or equal revenue generating land can be ceded to British. [Nizam Nawab has ceded Rayalaseema region in lieu of cash, so this region is referred as ceded even now].
- Signatory state shall surrender all foreign affairs to British like to wage a war a leave has to be taken from British authority; any treaty shall be through British and may others.
- Foreigners shall not be allowed without permission of British (Fear of Napoleon (who was raising a paramount power).
- To maintain all these things a British officer called 'British resident' shall be stationed permanently in capital. These residents involved in all administrative affairs whereas Kings became puppets.

- First, Nawab to sign was Nizam Ali of Hyderabad in 1798, then Chikka Krishnaraya Wadeyar III in 1799, Sultan Sadat Ali of Avadh in 1801, Peshwa Bajirao II of Maratha in 1802 and etc.

  • Finally Mysore state was conquered by British in the span of 30 years.



Mitakshara and Dayabhaga

   

Mitakshara and Dayabhaga

  • The Mitakshara is a vivrti (legal commentary) on the Yajnavalkya Smriti best known for its theory of 'inheritance by birth'.
  • The Dayabhaga is a Hindu law treatise written by Jirnutavahana (A Bengal Jurist of 12th Century) which primarily focuses on inheritance procedure. (Dayabhaga deals with the laws of inheritance based on Yajnavalkya Smriti/ Manu Smriti).
  • The Mitakshara, along with the Dayabhaga, became an influential source for British Courts in India. The Mitakshara was influential throughout the majority of India, except in Bengal and Assam, where the Dayabhaga prevailed as an authority for law (In Bengal (and post-independence West Bengal and Tripura) and Assam, Dayabhag,-a was the principal guide for laws on inheritance till the enactment of the Hindu Succession Act; 1956). The British were interested in administering the law in India, but they wanted to administer the law that already existed to the people. Thus, they searched for a text that could be used to help solve disputes among the people of India in manners which were already customary in the sub-continent. These disputes often involved property rights or inheritance issues.
  • Thus, the first translation of the Mitakshara was by 'Henry Thomas Colebrooke' (a Calcutta Supreme Court judge) in 1810 (because there was an immediate need in the British courts for the 'law' regarding inheritance that already existed among the people of India), and it was only this section of the text that gave the British insight on how to deal with inheritance issues. At that point, the Mitaksara held the status of a legislative text because it was used as a direct resource regarding inheritance in the courts of law in most of the India. Even he translated the Dayabhaga in 1810 through the use of manuscripts and Pandits.

Central differences between the Dayabhaga and the Mitaksara

The central difference between the texts is based upon when one becomes the owner of property. The Dayabhaga does not give the sons a right to their father's ancestral property until after his death, unlike Mitakshara, which gives the sons the right to ancestral property upon their birth.

Sons Inheritance

The son has no right to the father's ances- tral property until after his death, or the father's ownership becomes extinct through other means, such as being excluded from the caste or becoming ascetic_ This is in direct contrast to the Mitaksara, which gives the sons a claiin upon birth.

The Rights of the Widow

The widow succeeds the father's property rights on his death, even in cases where he held property jointly with his brother.

Ancestral Property

Dayabhaga states that the father is.the sole ruler of all property, both ancestral and personal. Unlike the Mitaksara, ancestral property is not seen as communal; therefore the father does not require the consent of his sons to act over the ancestral property_ The essential difference between the 'Dayabhaga' and the Mitaksara family is that the 'Dayabhaga' sees no difference between the father's total control over ancestral and personal property.

Personal Property

The father has the right to do as he wishes with his personal property in both the Mitaksara and the Dayabhaga.

Inheritance/ Succession

After the father's death, the sons will succeed his portion of the ancestral property. This can be done during the father's lifetime, but only if the father chooses to do so. The property is not communally owned by the family, as it is in the Mitaksara. Each son has the ability to do what he wishes with his portion of the property after his father's death.




Economy and Society aspects in Aryan Civilization

   

Economy

Phase -I

  • Pastoral Economy (based on animal domestication) is primary. Agrarian is on a limited scale, secondary.
  • In Rig Veda a food grain mentioned as 'Yava' (Wheat and Barley) was cultivated on a limited scale.
  • A metal was also used called 'Aya' (Copper and Bronze) .
  • Only Local trade & Commerce was carried on.
  • A Jem mentioned in Rig Veda called 'Suvarna Nishka'; it served the purpose of a coin, believed by the scholars.

Phase -II

  • Agrarian Economy is the primary reason because in this phase people moved towards Gangatic basic which are very fertile and virgin lands. Pastoral wasn't totally abandoned but on a limited scale.
  • Vrihi a food grain, known as paddy is grown here.
  • It was after 1000 BC iron began to be used this is called as 'Krishnaya' by later Vedic people.
  • Much improved Trade & Commerce.
  • Urbanization for the first time in the Indo-Gangatic basin has taken place. The first cities were
- Hastinapur, UP
- Kaushambi, UP (modern Kosam)
- Ahichachatra, UP (Modern Rae Bareli)

Society

Phase -I

  • Patriarchal joint family system. Senior male member is the head of the family and called Kulapa.
  • There is the class system but not a caste system. This hasn't emerged yet. Three classes were existing
                                 i.            Priest Classes
                               ii.            Warrior Classes
                              iii.            Commoners(Rest of the people) 
  • Social mobility and profession mobility freedom are given. Freedom to move between classes is there. Upward or downward mobility is possible. Professions are neither hereditary nor exclusive.
  • Aslokain Purushasukta, that deals with 'caste system' that belongs to Rig Veda, it was added later.
  • Interdining & interclass marriages much prevailed.

- Higher class/caste man marries lower class/caste woman it is called Anuloma (Hypergamous Marriage)
- Lower class/caste man marries higher class/caste woman it is called Pratiloma (Hypergamous Marriage)

Position of Women:

  • Women are given independence, equality, and freedom. Society was more mature.
  • Poly Andrey also practiced in Rig Vedic Period.
  • No kind of gender domination, no gender discrimination.
  • No child marriages.were allowed. There is a clear indication in one of Rig Veda hymn that marriage is allowed only after attaining puberty.
  • Women were equally literate and intellectual. More than 20 women scholars were mentioned in Rig Veda. A women scholar named 'Gosha' means 'rishi' is very much respected. She didn't marry (a spinster) and spent her entire life in pursuit of education staying at parent's house.
  • There are mentioning(s) of Sati but only symbolic not actually practiced.
  • No reference about widow marriages, but not restricted. This can be said from a word 'Niyogi' is found in Rig Veda it means - A Widow can marry the brother of the deceased husband (In English Levitate).
  • Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh was placed where 'Viragals' were found. Stone raised on tombs of soldiers dead in the war. They are also called hero stones. In Tamilnadu, these are called as 'Nadukkul'.

Phase II:

  • Chaturvarna (four castes) system emerged.
i) Brahmanas
ii) Kshatriyas
iii) Vysyas
iv) Sudras
  • Social mobility is completely checked. Upward/Downward movement is not allowed.
  • No Inter-dining is allowed.
  • Anuloma is legal but not Pratiloma.
  • The off-springs of the Pratilorna marriage are called 'Chandala' (Scavenger).
  • The dignity of women is no more seen. Complete suppression of women rights through various social evil practices.
  • Child marriage is practiced. A text of this period says 'ideal marriage of a bride is a 1/3rd age of groom'.
  • Sati became compulsory, widow marriages were tabooed.
  • Polygyny is accepted but not polyandry.



British conquest of India (part - 1) Bengal conquest

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British conquest of India


British, East India Co started conquering India after 1757. Bengal was first to declare independence from Mughals and first to be conquered by British. Avadh was the last state to be annexed by British in 1856. After this, they didn't conquer or annex any territories. Almost 500+ kingdoms were conquered by British in 100 years. Even after this, there were almost 563 odd states unconquered and independent till 1947. Statistically, British conquered amounts only to 50% of the territory of India which is called 'British India' and rest of the territories are called 'Princely India'. While leaving India in 1947 British has portioned British India as Pakistan and India, the choice was given to princely states to join either country. Most of the princely states joined Indian union.

Bengal conquest

  • Conquest of Bengal didn't happen overnight or due to a single reason. There were many reasons like free trade, fortifications, supporting rivals, the capture of fort William etc.
  • AS per 1717, farmana British were allowed customs-free trade in 3 subhas, so in those subhas to carry on trade British governor of Fort William issued Dastak permitting transit and trade by merchants. Interlopers are personal traders Working in EEIC. This trade was bigger than company trade. Interlopers started enjoying Dastak and even this was being sold to local merchants who are close to English merchants. This caused irritation to other merchants and they revolted against this.
  • Siraj-ud-Daula, GrandsOn of Ali Vardi Khan ruled Bengal territory for the year 1756 to 1757. He ordered to halt the fortification in Bengal. French and Dutch obeyed the order but British not. So (this causes a dispute between Siraj and British).
  • Revolting parties and persons against Siraj Were given refugee in Fort William by British which deepened the fissure between Nawab and British. So Siraj finally invaded Fort William and captured its governor William Drake. In this Fort William, an event occurred which is named as 'Black Hole Tragedy' which immediately resulted in war between Nawab and British.

Black hole Tragedy

  • When the governor was captured along with him Siraj also captured 146 English officers of Fort William and Imprisoned them in a small dark chamber. When it was opened only 16 were live remaining 130 died of suffocation. This hurt British a lot and then retaliated. Robert Clive who has scored a tremendous victory over French in Carnatic war was called back to Bengal and the task of Siraj was given to him.

Battle of Plassey

  • 23 June 1757 a battle took place in Plassey, Bengal in which Siraj was defeated out rightly. British were capable of defeating Siraj because of the sedition, treason, betrayal of his Senapati 'Mir Jafar' who had the secret alliance with Robert Clive. This is not a battle but a betrayal. After the victory, British didn't assume the power of Bengal. During 1757 to 1772 many developments took place in Bengal before British assumed power. Many Nawabs were appointed just a figureheads and when they revolted they were either dethroned or killed.
  • After defeating Siraj, as per the truce Robert Clive gave back power to Mirjafar thus he became Nawab of Bengal. He ruled till 1760. For supporting in gaining thrown he showered favors on British. He allowed them to carry free trade throughout Bengal. 1.7 Crore rupees was paid as war indemnity to British. Robert Clive was given 2 million and another office Watson was given 1 million rupees for the favour. He also gave 24 Paraganas to East India Company. After doing all this Mirjafar considered that he paid well in return and tried to rule on his own but this was not the strategy of British. They want him only as a puppet in their hands. Moreover, Mirjafar was developing cordial relations with Dutch. He is revamping his army with the help of Dutch. So British smelled some threat and in 1759 'Battle of Badera' Dutch were expelled from India and in 1760 Mirjafar was dethroned.
  • In 1760, Mirjafar's nephew and son-in-law 'Mir Qasim' was ascended to the throne. He ruled till 1763. In return of favour, he gave 3 districts to EEIC. They were Chittagong, Midnapur, and Burdwan. Of late British were also involving in administrative affairs of King which irritated 'Mir Qasim' who wants to be independent. To maintain independence he shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Malgir in Bihar. Murshidabad was most forward region and highly economical whereas Malgir was completely rural area and trade was minimal. He thought this step would decrease the impedance of British in administration. British got annoyed and so Mir Qasim was dismissed and dethroned. So British have no other alternative but to appointed Mirjafar has Nawab who was already suffering from leprosy.
  • Mir Qasim a very young and dynamic personality who wants to rule independently went to Avadh Sultan 'Shuja-ud-din' to seek assistance in getting the power and territory back. To his surprise there he found Mughal Sultan 'Shah Alam 2' taking shelter. He convinced both the sultans and promised huge amount so these three kings formed a tripartite alliance and prepared for battle with British.

Battle of Buxar

  • In 1764, at Buxar, a battle was fought between combined forces of Nawabs and British in which British scored a tremendous victory. British forces were led by its commander 'Henry Munro' as Robert Clive was in England.
  • In 1765, his war concluded with a Treaty of Allahabad. Robert Clive who was in England during the battle was called back to India and he was the mastermind behind this treaty. According to this treaty, Bengal administration should be divided into two parts known as Dual government. As per this truce Diwani administration shall be given to East India Co and whereas Nizamat administration to Nawab. For maintenance of army annually 52 crore rupees shall be given.
  • Diwani administration — Revenue collections
  • Nizamat administration — Law and Order & Defence maintenance
  • The system was in operation for 7 years that is till 1772. This act draining Indian wealth. Demarcation was done only at the top level whereas at the bottom level both functions were given to the same person. Though truce says bureaucrats shall be Maintained by British this didn't happen. The duality of command led to mismanagement and breakdown of administration. Of late this caused a huge famine in Bengal in which 1/3rd of the population died of starvation etc.
  • In 1772, a new governor 'Warren Hasting' was appointed in Bengal who immediately discontinued this dual government system. He also abolished Nawab system and all sovereign powers were taken away. Hereafter Nawabs were made as pensioners. This is how British were successful in conquering Bengal slowly and strategically.



Deccan Dynasties: Rashtrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas

   

Deccan Dynasties

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (753-973 AD)

  • These were the most significant kings of the period. No Kings of other dynasty were able to stand before these kings. Their empire sways from North- South. Many dynasties were their feudatories (like Cholas, Palas, Vemulavada Chalukyas, Vengi Chalukyas etc).
  • Their military achievements were magnificent. Their contribution to Art and Architecture is most significant and remarkable. World's best and greatest cave temples were built by them. These were the last kings who patronized cave temples. After them, this cave temple activity lost its sheen and it was completely abandoned by next generation rulers.
  • These rulers patronized Sanskrit literature apart from colloquial languages. Kannada literature was started in this epoch. The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly influenced by Jainism.
  • These ruled with Ellora (Venul) now in Maharastra as their capital city.
  • At Ellora, they have built 34 cave temples — 5 of them were Jain, 10-12 were Buddhists and rest were Shivas and Vaishnavas.

Dantidurga

  • The first king of this dynasty was Dantidurga, who was a feudatory to Badami Chalukyas later he overthrew Kirtivarman II and declared himself independent.
  • Dantidurga has built 2 cave temples at Ellora. They were
  • Dashavatara cave temple (Cave No 15. This cave depicts the ten forms (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. The sculpture which portrays lord Narasimha killing Hiranyakashapu is beautiful and worth seeing. We see the anger on Narsingh's face while there is utter fear on Hiranyakashapu's face).
  • Ravan Ka Khai (Cave No 14. This is a Shiva cave and is famous for a sculpture of Ravana holding the Kailash Mountain).

Krishna I

  • Next, important king, the successor of Dantidurga was 'Krishna I' he built a cave temple at Ellora was known as Kailashanatha Temple (The 16th cave is famous all over the world as the Kailash cave or temple. It's an achievement in terms of architecture and sculpture and is a unique temple which has been made from a single rock face. It has been chiseled from top to bottom, which is extremely rare for temple architecture.
  • This is perhaps biggest, greatest and magnificent rock cut cave temple in the World. This is a frank imitation of Kailashanatha temple of Kanchi built by Pallavans. So the style of sculpture in this temple is Dravidian. This is a monolithic structure. It is observed that for building this it took almost 100 yearS and 6 generations down the line.

Amoghavarsha I (814 - 878)

  • Next, an important king was Amoghavarsha I (also Nrupathunga). He had the lengthy reign and considered greatest among the rest of all Kings of this dynasty.
  • He built a new capital city called 'Manyakheta' and thus shifted his capital from Ellora to Manyakheta.
  • He took the title 'Kaviraja'. He wrote 2 books called
  • Kavirajamarga (First text of Kannada literature and this is the earliest available text of Kannada and this hook is on grammar).
  • Prashnottara Ratnamalika (A Sanskrit book written in the form of Questions and Answers on Jainism. This is because Amoghavarsha was a staunch follower of Jainism).
  • Amoghavarsha ended his life performing Sallekhana. Sallekhana he performed was in a different way. He didn't fast unto death but he submerged himself into holy waters of Tungabhadra and gave up his life.
  • There were many Sanskrit scholars in his court. Few of them are Jinasena - he wrote 'Aadipurana'
  • Saktayana - he Wrote 'Amogavriti' (A book on Grammar)
  • Mahaviracharya - A Jain Mathematician - He wrote a great book on Mathematics called 'Ganitasarasangraha'. (Pauluri Mallana contemporaries to Nannaya translated this Ganitasarasangraha into Telugu).

Krishna III

  • He took the title of 'Tanjavore Konda' (Conqueror of Tanjavore, the capital city of Cholas).
  • In 949 AD battle of Takkolam, Chola Emperor Parantaka Chola was defeated. After the battle, Krishna III erected a victory pillar at Rameshwaram.
  • The last king was Karka, he was killed by one of his Samantha (feudatory) called Tailapa II, who went on to form Kalyani Chalukyas.

Kalyani Chalukyas (973 — 1189)


This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukyas after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka.


Vikramaditya VI

  • One important king of this dynasty is Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126). Two scholars adorned his court and they are
  • Bilhana - He wrote Vikramadevacharita (it is a eulogy of the King), written in Sanskrit.
  • Vijnanesvara - Around in the late eleventh and early twelfth century. He wrote Mitaksara. He was a "profound student of the Purva-Mimamsa system," a system of exegetical thought focused on the interpretation of the Vedas.

Someshwara III

  • Another King, Someshwara IlI - he wrote a Sanskrit book called 'Manasollasa'. This book has another name called 'Abhilashitarthachintamani'.
  • He took the title called 'Sarvagna'.
  • After the decline of Kalyani Chalukyas, two kingdoms have emerged in Deccan which were earlier feudatories. They are
  • Yadava Kingdom (Maharastra region) with Devagiri as capital. In the Yadava court, an astronomer 'Bhaskaracharya' lived and he wrote books like 'Siddantha Shiromani' a book on Mathematics and Leelavathi a book on Astronomy.
  • Kakatiyas (Andhra Region) with Warangal as capital.



Vedic / Aryan Civilization (1500 BC - 600 BC)

   


Original Home

  • The original home of Aryans is still a point of debate. So there are many hypotheses. One of such is - The scholars who opened Saptha Sindhu as a home of Aryans were Sampurna Anand and A.C.Das. Sapta Sindhu (Afghanistan, Himalaya, Yamuna & Aravalli as boundaries that land is called Sapta Sindhu)- Seven Rivers
§  Saraswati
§  Sindhu (Indus)
§  Parushni (Raavi)
§  Vitasa (Jhelum)
§  Vipasa (Beas)
§  Satudri (Sale)
§  Asikini (Chenab)

--Tibet - Expressed by Dayanand Saraswati.
--Arctic - Bala Gangadhar Tilak is written a book titled "Arctic, The Home of Aryan".
--Germany - Almost by European historians.
--Central Asia - This is mostly accepted and sounds rational theory & proposed by Max Muller. He is a German Indologist and Sanskrit professor in German Universities. He translated Rig Veda into English. He proposed that Aryans came from Central Asia. His theory is based on Philology (Study of languages and their comparisons) and Epigraphy.

  • There is a very old inscription at a place Bhogazkoi (Turkey) which belongs to Aryans (1400 BC). This supports the Max Muller theory. There is a reference in the script that says Aryans are moving towards Eastern along with their Gods like Indra, Varuna...etc).
  •  Aryan Civilization, we study in two parts (phases).
                 --- 1500 BC - 1000 BC (Early Vedic culture/ Rig Vedic Culture) - Phase I.

                 --- 1000 BC - 600 BC (Later Vedic period) - Phase II.

  • Rig Veda is the earliest and written in the first phase. so the phase is named after this. No other book is available to study the first phase except Rig Veda. Only with this Rig Veda, this phase is studied.
  • The reason to study the AC in two phases is because after a 1000BC tremendous change came in culture. No matter Geography has a major role in it. Location of the first phase and second are different. By the end of the first phase, people began to move towards east Gangatic.
  • This civilization is developed by Aryans, who are believed to be foreigners (People from Central Asia). We call them Aryans because they speak Aryan. So it is a linguistic term. These people belong to the Nordic region.
  • These people composed a large number of Vedic literature this is called Vedic civilization. The first text was prepared by Aryan. Historic age began with the advent of Aryan.
  •  700-800 cities/sites have been excavated. Archeologist gave this civilization name as "Painted Grey Ware". Because they found pottery of gray color and painted  at many  sites.
  • Vedic literature is .completely sacred, pious and not secular. Later this formed a pillar of Hindu religion.
  • Aryan literature can be divided into 8 parts
1. Vedas
2. Brahmanas
3. Aranyaka
4.Upanishads
5. Vedangas
6. Puranas
7.Upavedas
8. Ithihasa

Literature:

Vedas

  •  Rig Veda has got 1028 hymns
- Divided into 10 Mandalams / Chapters
- The name of 10th chapter is Purusha Sukta and here one sloka refers about 'Caste System".
  • Yajur Veda - Rituals
  • Sama Veda - Deals with music
  • Atharvana Veda - Contains magical issues to deal with diseases (Mantras)

Brahmanas 

These are '7' and all these deal with rituals.
  • Aitereya Brahmana
  • Shulapata Brahmana
  • Kausitika Brahmana

Aranyakas

  • Books related to forest living hermit i.e., Rishis, certain Aranyankas are appended to Brahmanas. So '7' Aranyankas added to '7' Brahmanas.

Upanishads

They are 108 in total in number
  • Chandogya
  • Gruhadranyaka
  • Mundokap ("Satya Meva Jayathe" comes from this)
  • Shwetheswatara
  • Jabalo

Vedanga


  • They are six in number
Siksha — Phonetics
Nirpkta — Etymology (Origin of words)
Vyakarna — Grammar
Chandassu — Metrics
Jyothishya — Astrology
Kalpa — Rituals
  • There are three parts of Kalpa.
  • Grihasutra — Home rituals (16 rituals are to be performed and maintained / described in Grihasutra). One such ritual is Upanayana. Dvija are 'Twice-born' and Ekaja are 'Single born'. The performance of Upanayana ritual is like being born once again. So who ever do this ritual is Dvija and rest who does not perform is Ekaja. The performance of this ritual is confined only to People/Male of Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vysyas are only allowed for Upanayana. Sudras and women of 4 categories are not allowed for upanayana.
  • Stauthasutra — Public rituals
  • Suluva -Construction of fire altars (Sulva Sutra deals with the construction of fire altars and huge knowledge of geometry is dealt in detail).

Puranas

Puranas are 18 in number. These contain unbelievable mythological stories and huge historical knowledge. Purana speaks of the genealogy of ancient period kings.
  • Vishnu Purana
  • Padma Purana
  • Matsya Purana
  • Vayu Purana 

Upavedas

Upavedas are 4 in number.
  • Ayurveda = Knowledge of life (Ayu = Life)
  • Ghandarvaveda = Music
  • Shilpaveda = Architecture
  • Dhanurveda = Archery

Ithihasas

Epics are 2 in number
  • Ramayana
  • Mahabharata (Bhagavad-Gita is an appendix to Mahabharata)


Later Mughal Empire

   


Later Mughal Empire


During 18thC in India, there was a lot of political tensions, turmoil, and disintegrations of Mughal Empire etc. This collectively provided an environment conducive forBritish to creep in Indian territories spreading their trade and actively increasing their power and root is Indian politics. Moreover, Mughal emperor after Aurangzeb were not so powerful and dynamic so their timidity and being indifference to issues given a boost and opportunity to various officers to usurp power and declare independence. Thereafter the disintegration of Mughals has started and it shattered into more than 1000 kingdoms. Their weakness led British to rise as the supreme paramount power in India.
Mughals after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 their rule continued till 1857 but not so effectively. These rulers were only figured head and puppets in the hands of vazirs and other nobles.

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Bahadur Shah:

  • He is also known as 'Alam Shah I' ruled from 1707 to 1712. Contemporary historian describes him as 'Shah-i-Bekhabar' (Heedless emperor).

Jahandar Shah I :

  • He ruled for only a year 1712 - 1713. His vazir 'Zulfik-Khan' was defacto authority. He abolished Jiziya once for all in India. He also introduced a new revenue system called 'Ijara'. A middle _man is appointed for collecting tax on behalf of the state and he Shall return the amount to state while he receives a commission. This is a tax intermediary system.

Faruk Siyar:

  • He ruled from 1713 to 1719. Two brothers in his nobility popularly known as 'Syed brothers' were defacto rulers. They were Syed Abdullah was vazir and Syed Hussain Ali Khan was Mir Bakshi.
  • In the year 1717, he issued a farmana to English East India Company. According to this farmana, EEIC shall annually pay z 10000 to Mughals and in return the company can carry customs-free trade in 3 subhas. They are Bengal Subha, Gujarat Subha, and Deccan.

Mohd Shah:

  • He is popularly known as Rangeela (pleasure-loving man) and ruled from 1719 to 1748. A contemporary historian says Sultan has neglected his duties, not only neglected least he didn't know what his duties are too. He is dancing with women, drinking etc. It was a great time for all dancers. Sultan himself was involved in Kathak dance and Hindustani musician.
  • Two powerful nobles in his court were Nizam-ul-Mulk and Burham-ul-Mulk. These two officers were rivals to each other not only on political aspects but also on regional grounds. Nizam was Sunni from Central Asia known as Turanis and Burham was Irani Of late these two came out Delhi and declared independence by founding 2 different kingdoms. This is how disintegration started in Mughal Empire.
  • 1722 - Faizabad as capital 'Avadh' Kingdom was founded by Burham. This capital was later shifted to Lucknow.
  • 1724 - Nizam-ul-Mulk went to Deccan and founded 'Nizam' state with Aurangabad as capital which Was later shifted to Hyderabad during 'Nizam Ali' reign. Nizam-ul-Mulk has come down to Deccan because earlier he served as governor of Deccan twice in the Mughal period. He has good acquaintances and with their support, he was successful in founding the Nizam state. Nizam-ul-Mulk had a title 'Asaf Jha'. These Asaf Jhais ruled certain areas of Andhra Pradesh, Northern Karnataka, and Marathwada region till 1948.
  • During Mohd Shah's reign in 1739, Sultan Nadir Shah of Iran invaded India. Nadir Shah was known as 'Napoleon of Iran', such powerful and fierce was that King. A Battle at 'Karnal'(Haryana) was fought between Nadir Shah and Mohd Shah looked like a nominal battle in which 'Mohd Shah' was defeated (One side was a powerful king and another side was a weak king). 'Nadir Shah' stayed in India 60 days plundering and looting the wealth of Mughals to his satisfaction. His booty was worth of 70 crores and also abducted Peacock throne and 'Koh-i-noor' diamond (Mountain of Diamond in Persia).However, Kohinoor diamond returned to India eventually which was taken away by British to England where as whereabouts of Peacock throne were unknown.

Ahmed Shah:

  • He was son and successor of Rangeela ruled from 1748 to 1754. He was a puppet in the hands of his vazir, 'Imad-ul-Muck' who was very cruel, ferocious and powerful man. Because of a dispute between vazir and sultan, Ahmed Shah was imprisoned and in his place, Alaingir II  was made as Sultan. Alamgir ruled from 1754 to 1759.
  • Again due to a dispute between Alamgir and Ahmed, Alamgir II was killed and his naked dead body was thrown into a river. Not even the last rites were performed such is the fate of Mughal Sultan.

Shah Alam II:

  • He ruled from 1759 to 1806. No doubt he has a high-sounding title but personally he wasn't. He was in incognito for first 12 years taking shelter in Avadh for fear of Imad Shah. It is only after the death of 'Imad Shah' he returned and ruled. His territory at that time was confined to Delhi and Palam which was very insignificant and minute area. Contemporary historian says Alam territory does not go beyond Palam.
  • In 1803 - These territories of Delhi and Palam were also occupied by British and confining Alam to Red Fort. Britishers on humane and compassionate grounds gave the pension of 11.5 lakh to Shah Alam to meet his requirements etc. So Shah Alam II became the first pensioner sultan. Hereafter Mughal sultans were given pensions but not sovereign powers.

Akbar II:

  • He ruled from 1806 to 1837 unlike his ancestor Akbar he was very incapable and inept King. He was also pension receiving Sultan. As pension was insufficient to meet the expenses he made several petitions to EEIC to enhance but they didn't. So he decided to directly speak to Crown in England and get some remedy. He being very irrational and unwise. He sent a Bengal Brahmin who was western educated intellect. He conferred a title 'Raja' on him and thus he became Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
  • As per sultan wish, he went to England but didn't return. He died in England itself and his tomb is found at Bristol.

Bahadur Shah II:

  • The last sultan of Mughals ruled from 1837 to 1857. He was a good poet in Urdu and he wrote many shayris with pen name 'Zafar'.
  • In 1857, Sepoy revolt started against British regime (Sepoy were Indian those serving in British Army). These wanted to end the British reign in India and reinstate Mughal rule. So, they convinced Bahadur Shah II finally. Initially, he was reluctant knowing the power of British and fear of getting killed. He requested them not to indulge him in this movement but forcibly made the leader of the movement. British eventually suppressed the revolt and entered Delhi massacred all members of Mughal family not even child and women were spared. No root of Mughal family was spared fearing the inheritance later.
  • Bahadur Shah was captured in 1858 and put in Rangoon jail. In 1862 he died in the jail itself. He was buried there itself With this Mughals were completely gone once for all. A poet laments that poor Bahadur Shah II was so unfortunate that he could not get 6 feet land for his burial in his own motherland.




Eastern Indian Dynasties - Palas and Sena

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Eastern Indian Dynasties - Palas and Sena

For 350 years Palas were rulers of Bihar and Bengal for next 100 years thereafter Sena's were rulers of Bihar and Bengal.

Palas Dynasty :


  • It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, all the rulers bearing names ending with the suffix Pala, which means protector. The Palas were often described by opponents as the Lords of Gauda.
  • Gopala was the first ruler of the dynasty. He came to power in 750 in Gaur by a democratic election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the Maha Janapadas. He reigned from 750-770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of the Bengal.
  • These were the patronizers of Vajrayana Buddhism. These are the last rulers of India to patronize Buddhism. These ruler's propagated Buddhism in Tibet.
  • One king `Dharmapala' - He built Vikramashila University', Bihar. This is a Vajrayana University.
  • His son and successor `Devapala' was next king. He shifted the capital from Pataliputra to Monghyr - Nalanda copper plate inscription. The context says, "A Vihara at Nalanda was built by Balaputradeva (A Buddhist Indonesia King). For its maintenance, Devapala donated five villages to this Vihara.
  • Monks (patronized by Palas) who propagated Vajrayanism in Tibet were    
         - Padmasambhava
         - Atisadeepankara
         - Shantarakshita
  • The last king 'Madanapala' was assassinated by Kannadiga Senapati 'Vijayasena'. Then he founded Sena dynasty.

Sena Dynasty :



  • The dynasty's founder was Hemanta Sen, who was part of the Pala dynasty until their empire began to weaken. He usurped power and styled himself king in 1095 AD.
  • Capital was `Laknauti'

Lakshmana Sena:

  • Very important and as well as last king of this dynasty was 'Lakshmana Sena'.
  • A Vaishnava saint was in court called 'Jayadeva'. He wrote a Sanskrit book called 'Geetagovindam' (For Vaishnaivism this book is considered as authoritative).
  • He was the last Hindu ruler of Bihar and Bengal.
  • 1194 — Bhaktiyar Khilji (One of the officers of Md Ghori) marched into Laknauti and scored an easy victory because Lakshmana Sena didn't offer any resistance.
  • Bhaktiyar Khilji after conquering he destroyed all the universities in Bihar(both Nalanda and Vikramashila). Not only destroyed but massacred the Buddhist monks taken shelter in those universities. This brought an end to Buddhism in India.This is often referred by Historians as a deathly blow to Buddhism and deems Khilji as the person who nailed the last into the Buddhist coffin. 
  • By the end of 12th C Buddhism completely disappeared froth India. After Palas, no other kings in India patronized  Buddhism.



Economic System in Indus valley civilization

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7. Economic System in Indus valley civilization

Economic System:
  • Agrarian (Agricultural) Economy.
  • These people got two crop seasons Rabi and Kharif In Rabi, Wheat, and Barley (Mostly food grains, the staple food) were produced and in Kharif Cotton, Mustard and others were produced. There are certain controversies in historians.
               - Rice available is either grown or flew?
               - Did they use plough?
               - Domestication of the horse?
       But recent excavations prove that all the three existed and they all existed but                 used only to very limitation.
  • Only two cities were rice grain was found
                - Lothal, Gujarat (Rice grain was found)
                - Rangapur, Gujarat (Rice-husk was found)
  • At every site a digging hoe was found but not plough; only at two sites plough was found.
               - Kali Bangal, Rajasthan (Furrows were discovered — a filed which is ploughed).
               - Banvali, Haryana (Banks of River Saraswati) (A terracotta / burnt clay replica of the plough was found).
  • The horse was known to Indus people but it is domesticated on a limited basis.
               - Lothal, Gujarat ( A terracotta replica was found)
               - Surkotada, Gujarat ( Skeletal/original remains were found)
Industries:
  • Textile industries both cotton & wool (At every site)
  • Shipbuilding industries at Lothal.
  • Jewellery/Ornaments [Indus Valley Civilization made jewellery largely using beads and shells]
              - Lothal, Gujarat
              - Chanhudaro
              - Dholavira (Beads of goldware found of very small size)
  • Brick Industry
  • Carpentry Industries
  • Copper & Bronze Industries
Trade and Commerce:
  • Indus Valley Civilization has both internal & international trade. The mode of transportation for internal trade was bullock cart and river boats majorly. International trade was regular with Mesopotamians. It is sea-borne trade and Lothal played an important role.
  • Large no of seals were found in Mesopotamian civilizations and vice-versa. Mesopotamians used cylindrical seals.
              - 3 cylindrical seals were found at Mohenjodaro belonging to Mesopotamians.
              - The script used by Mesopotamians called as cuneiform.
              - An inscription dated 2200 BC was found and deciphered. It says Sindan (cotton) was imported from Meluha (India).


Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/vedic-aryan-civilization-1500-bc-600-bc.html


Advent of Denmark and French(Part-2) - Second and Third Carnatic War

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Advent of Denmark and French(Part-2) - Second and Third Carnatic War

Second Carnatic War

  • This war was fought from 1749 to1756, almost for 7 years. This time, the root cause was indigenous reason i.e. the war of succession in two states of southern India. They are Carnatic and Nizam.
  • In Carnatic, then Nawab was 'Anwar-ud-din' and his rival was his cousin 'Chanda Saheb' who was trying to usurp power by deposing the Nawab. French were supporting 'Chanda Saheb' and British 'Anwar-ud-din'. In Nizam, then Nawab was 'Nazar Jung' and his rival was nephew. (sister's son) 'Muzaffar Jung' who was trying to usurp power by deposing the Nawab. Here French were supporting 'Muzaffar Jung' and British his counterpart 'Nazar Jung'. In the end, four got killed and nothing happened to British or French.
  • In 'Battle of Ambur 1749 'Anwar-ud-din' was assassinated by 'Dupleix' and Nawab's son 'Mohd Ali' ran away from the battlefield and hide in Tiruchunapally. Thereafter Dupleix seated Chanda Saheb on throne scoring a victory over British.
  • In 1750, 'Dupleix' hatched many conspiracies and finally got killed 'Nazar Jung' and thus seating 'Muzaffar Jung' on the throne. For the protection of Muzaffar, a contingency of French army led by commander `Busyy' was stationed at capital Aurangabad. (By this time Nizam's haven't changed their capital from Aurangabad to Hyderabad). This was the first phase of war where French scored an absolute victory over British under the leadership of 'Dupleix'.
  • British who were not much concentrating on the south were immediately alarmed after these two incidents. So these started retaliation by ending huge army stationed in Bengal to the south. A British officer 'Robert Clive', a powerful warrior and intelligent in cracking conspiracies was appointed for this task. 'Robert Clive' is often referred as Jackal by his colleagues.
  • In 1752, 'Robert Clive' killed 'Chanda Saheb' whereby 'Mohd Ali' was called back and given the throne. Next, 'Muzaffar Jung' was also killed by a conspiracy when he was in Cuddapah visit. 'Salabath Jung' was made the ruler.
  • This war came to an end with 'Treaty of Pondicherry' in 1754 and 'Treaty of Tiruchunapally' in 1755. In this phase, British scored an upper hand over French. French government immediately called back 'Dupleix' and he was imprisoned for causing such loss.

Third Carnatic War

  • This war was fought from 1756 to 1763. Root for this war was an international reason. French and Europe was fighting for establishing power in 13 independent states in Northern America (The USA was yet to form). Both nations want to make these states as their colonies. This war was fought for seven years so it is referred as 'Seven Years war' till today. So this third Carnatic war was simply an extension of war being fought in America.
  • In the course of war in 1760, a battle called 'Battle of Wandywash' (Vandavasi) fought in which French governor 'Count De Lally' was defeated thoroughly and imprisoned by a British officer 'Sir Eyre Coote'. Thereafter all French settlements were captured and demolished.
  • This war came to an end when Seven years war came to an end by means of a truce made in Paris by French and British which is popularly known as 'Treaty of Paris'. With this treaty, French lost all its power in America and also in India. One such provision relating to India was - French were given back their settlements but they shall remain as only mere merchants but not as masters. They shall maintain no army, no fortifications etc shall be maintained.
  • Till 1954, these settlements remained in possession of French. By diplomatic means, all these territories were surrendered to Indian union. (All settlements were made as UTs except Chandranagar where a plebiscite was conducted and people opted for merging in Bengal). 



Chauhan (Chahamana) and Gahadavala dynasties

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Chauhan (Chahamana) and Gahadavala dynasties

Chauhan or Chahamana:

These were the masters of Rajasthan ruled with 'Ajmer' as capital.

Prithviraj Chauhan III:

  • He is the last king and great king of this dynasty ruled from 1179 - 1192.
  •  A scholar in his court 'Chand Bardai' - He wrote a book called 'Prithivirajaraso' (it is considered as Early Hindi literature and earliest available text of Hindi language).
  • Two battles were fought between 'Prithviraj Chauhan III'  and 'Mohammed Ghori'. Both battles were fought at Taneshwar, so these battles are called Battle of Taneshwar or Battle ofTarain. In the first battle around 1191 Ghori was humiliated and defeated. Later in second battle around 1192 'Prithviraj Chauhan III' was killed and Ajmer was conquered. Thereafter, Ghori left annexing the empire and installing one of his governors 'Qutub-ud-din-Aibak' as in charge of Ajmer.

Gahadavala Dynasty :

  • These were the rulers of parts of North-India with Kanauj as their capital.
  • 'Chandradova' founded the Gahadavala dynasty at Kanyakubja after defeating a chief named 'Gopala'.
  • After Gurjara Pratihara decline these came to power. 

Jayachandra:

  • The last king of this dynasty was 'Jayachandra'. He refused to aide Prithviraj Chauhan III when Ghori invaded. This is an irrevocable mistake he committed.
  • A Sanskrit scholar named 'Sri Harsha' was in his court. He wrote Naishada Charita (Kavi Srinatha translated this into Telugu and named it as 'Sringhara Naishadam').
  • In 1194 - A battle was fought at Chandvar,UP between him and Ghori. Md Ghori invaded and defeated Jayachandra. Ghori killed Jayachandra and annexed the kingdom and ended the Gahadavala dynasty.

Public administration and Religious aspects in Indus Valley Civilization

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Public administration and Religious aspects in Indus Valley Civilization

Public administration:

  • There is no evidence and a dearth of material. D. D.Kaushambi hypothecated saying — Priests were rulers in Indus Valley Civilization. R.S.Sharma denies this hypothesis and postulated merchants were rulers in Indus Valley Civilization. 
  • The administration was highly centralized, (Based on kind of city Planning, Sanitation etc.,) very powerful too. Bricks found were in the ratio of 4:2:1 standard / uniform that can conclude that administration was highly centralized.
  • Uniform weights and measures were used (16 as the basic unit).

 Town-Planning:

  • Uniformity in the plan, all cities have the same plan. Every city is divided into two parts i) Upper City (Western) ii) Lower City (Eastern). Upper City is called citadel and is protected by a fortified wall. Aristocrats used to live in the citadel. Lower City is for normal beings.
  • Chanhudaro is a city without citadel.
  • Dholovira is divided/ demarcated into three parts as Upper City, Middle City, and Lower City.
  • All the cities were built in a grid pattern. Roads are built in a straight line without curves. Parallel roads run from N-S & E-W. Roads intersect exactly at 90 degrees and each block is of equal size.
  • Banvali, Haryana where the grid pattern was not found. Roads are in a zig-zag manner.
  • Good underground drainage system even with manholes. Banavali is an exception.

Society:

  • Two important components of society were Stratification and Women.
  • A matriarchal society is a hypothesis developed by John Marshall based on scanty evidence of Indus Valley Civilization.
  • Indus Valley Civilization pantheon consists of both male & female deities. These people also worshiped bull (Agrarian Economy is the reason).

Religious:

  • Indus Valley Civilization pantheon consists of
  • Mother Goddess (Female deity - Prominently worshiped. Terracotta figurines of the goddess were found at every site).
  • Pashupati Mahadeva (A seal found at Mohenjodaro depicts this god; Multi-headed god; only at one site this was found). In the course of time scholars identified this god as Lord Shiva.

  • Linga (Phullic) - Stone Phullic were found at Mohenjodaro.
  • Bull Worship
  • Snake worship
  • Tree worship
  • A large number of amulets were found. This indicates the existence of demophobia, people believed in superstitious beliefs.
  • Rituals - Animal sacrifice.
  • Live after death - they believed (large no of grave goods along with skeleton was found. throughout the sites).



Advent of Denmark and French(Part-1)

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Advent of Denmark and French(Part-1)

Denmark:

  • Danish were next to follow British were merchants of Denmark. These people were very insignificant just petty merchants.
  • They came to India in 1616 and their first settlement in India was at 'Trancubar' in Tamil Nadu. Their headquarters was at Sarangpur, Bengal.
  • In 1845, they left India selling their all settlements to British without revolting.

French:

  • These were last Europeans who came to India for trade.
  • In 1664 'French East India Co' was founded which was a public enterprise. (Man behind this was then Prime Minister Colbert and King was Louis. French kings at this point time were very sober and never initiative. Prime Ministers were almost defacto rulers).
  • Their first settlement was at Surat in 1668. Other settlements were at. Machilipatnam, Chandranagar, Yanam (Andhra Pradesh), Mahe (Kerala), Karaikal (Tamil Nadu) and headquarters was at Pondicherry.
  • In 1673 site of Pondicherry was acquired by a French officer 'Francois Martin' from a local Nawab. He developed the city from scratch. Francois Martin was governor of French in India.
  • British and French fought many wars in India may be out of political reasons arose in India or sometimes outside India. These Anglo-French wars are known as Carnatic wars. These are named so because Carnatic has become venue/theater of these wars. Carnatic is a region in Tamil Nadu with capital at Arcot has declared independent after the death of Aurangzeb. Carnatic is derived from Coromandal.
  • These wars reflected like wars between two nations, unlike two companies. [Rivalry between French and British was not only political but also national. There was mutual hatred between citizens of each nation. Hatred from grass root level. In the process of supreme power in the world, this hatred-ness has deepened more]. Total three Carnatic wars were fought and out of which two were extensions of war that fought outside India.

First Carnatic War:

  • This was fought around 1746 to 1748. The root cause for this war was European politics. At this time, there was a war of succession in Austria as the King of Austria died. French were supporting one successor and British other so they were in the war. This Carnatic war was just extended the war in India. French governor `Dupleix' a powerful man, captured Madras and expelled British completely from that place.
  • This war came to an end when the war in Europe came to an end with a truce called 'Treaty of Aix La Chappell'. One provision of this treaty was to maintain pre-war status quo i.e. all occupied  territories shall be returned into to the respective holder.
Related Posts: 

http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/advent-of-denmark-and-frenchpart-2.html


Paramara or Pawar Dynasty and Solanki Dynasty

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Paramara or Pawar Dynasty and Solanki Dynasty

Paramara or Pawar Dynasty 


  • These ruled over MP with Dhar (ancient Dhara Nagari) as capital.
  • Upendra founded this dynasty in 800 C.

Bhoja:

  • Bhoja one great king of this dynasty - he was a great conqueror, administrator, warrior and a scholar indeed. He wrote almost 24 books in Sanskrit and took the title `Kaviraja'. Few of his books are 
  1. Ayurvedasarvaswa (Book on medicine).
  2. Samarangana Sutradhara (Book on principles of Architecture).
  3. Rajamruganka (Book on Yoga).
  4. Tatvaprakasha (Book on Shaivism and Philosophy).
  • He also founded a city called Bhojpur in Madhya Pradesh. In Bhojpur, a Sanskrit college called Saraswati Kantabharana Vidyalaya' or simple 'Bhojashala' was established. He was a devotee of Saraswati (Vaagdevi).

Solanki Dynasty 


  • These ruled over Gujarat for almost 350 years with Annihilwara (Siddhpur Patan) as the capital city. Solankis are a Hindu Agnivanshi Rajput clan of Gurjar.
  • Mulraj Solanki (942-996) overthrew Samantsinh Chavda in 942 and set up what came to be known as the Solanki dynasty.

Bhima Dev I:

  • 1025 - Mohammed Ghazini's invaded India for the 16th time and this time on Solanki dynasty. He attacked Somnatha temple and demolished it completely. (In olden days treasure and donations of various devotees were stored in the temple. So these were the major attractions for invaders for satisfying their zeal for wealth). Later this temple was reconstructed by Bhima Dev I.

  • A Jain Minister Vimala was in his court. This man built a beautiful Jain temple at Dilwara on  Mt.Abu in Rajasthan. This temple is the finest temple of Jainism in India, White marble was used and magnificent carvings are done on the walls of the temple. This temple is also known as Vimalashahi temple.
  • Shantacharya and Suracharya were two Jain saints during his reign.

Jayasimha Siddaraja and Kumarapala:

  • Other Kings of this dynasty were Jayasimha Siddaraja and his son 'Kumarapala'.
  • The court of both of the kings was adorned by a greatest Jain scholar called 'Hemachandra'. This scholar has a title called 'Kalikala Sarvagna' (Sarvagna — encyclopedia and Kali — The present age as per mythology). He wrote books in Sanskrit like
1.       Trisasti Shaiakapurusha (Trisasti means 63. In Jainism after Tirthankaras there were 63 monks called Shalakapurushas).
2.       Parisistaparvan
3.       Kumarapala charitha (Book on the king Kumarapala)
4.       Neminatha charitha (Neminatha, a Jain Tirthankara)

Bhima Dev II :


  • He came to the throne around 1178. In the battle of Mt.Abu between Mohammed Ghori and Bhima,Ghori  was defeated.There were two Jain ministers in his court. These ministers built few temples at Dilwara.

- Vastupal

- Tejapal

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/03/chandela-dynasty.html


Indus Valley Civilization (2500-1500)

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Indus-Valley Civilization (2500 BC - 1500 BC) 




  • Sir John Marshall, appointed as director-general in 1920, was instrumental in identifying the ancient Indus Valley Civilization with the help of his deputies Daya Ram Sahni and R.D. Banerjee. 
  • This civilization prospered in and around of Indus River. and its tributaries
  • So far 1400 sites were excavated belonging to Indus Valley Civilization: 80 % of the sites found were outside the Indus valley, so the naming of culture is bit issue among the scholars. So traditionally. .this site is being known as Indus valley civilization but Scholars also name it variously. Harappa was the first site (type site) found in 1921. So this civilization is also known as Harappan Civilization. Also known as Bronze Age Civilization, cause bronze was first time used by Indus Valley people in India, Copper - mixed tin is called bronze.
  • Protohistoric civilization: Though we have the available script it is not yet deciphered so this age does not come in historic neither prehistoric so a new transitional age was created by scholars and inserted this age into it called protohistoric. Paleographers failed to decipher the scripts because of the two reasons. No alphabets only pictures (pictographic), ideas were expressed in the form of pictures. Scripts were found on very seals which were very small in size and the pictographs were also limited to them (more than 4000 seals were excavated made of Steatite). Seals were rectangular or square not more than one centimeter or 1/2cm. This script is boustrophedon.
  • Contemporary civilizations to Indus valley civilization outside India were
- Sumerian / Mesopotamian Civilization (Daob - Tigris River & Euphrates River). The script used by this people is known as cuneiform.
- Egyptian Civilization (At Nile River & its tributaries). The Script used by this people is known as hieroglyphic.

- Chinese Civilization (At Hwangho River Valley)
  • Contemporary cultures of Indus valley civilization in India were
- Neolithic cultures of Kashmir and South India
- Aahar culture (chalcolithic culture)

- OCP culture of Indo Gangatic basin (Chalcolithic culture)
  • Though these cultures had good trade and commerce relations with Indus valley people they did not adopt each other's culture. They were independent but at the same time, interdependent. This explains a lack of plasticity of mind and non-adoptability nature of the people. 
  • There is no accurate information on beginning and termination of the civilization. So there is no consensus among the scholars regarding dating this civilization. VarioUs scholars proposed various dates like 'John Marshal' hypothetically dated this civilization belonging to the period of 3250 BC - 2750 BC. Later 'Martimum Wheeler' (DG in the year 1940) dated this between 2500 BC - 1500 BC initially and later corrected it to 1750 BC. Fair Service in his book called Prehistoric India dates this civilization to period between 2000 BC - 1500 BC. 'Dr. Agarwal' on the basis of C14 method confirms as 2300 BC - 1750 BC. So generally, this civilization is expected to flourish between 2500 BC - 1500 BC.
  • As per the geographical extent is a concern this civilization is considered to be largest and biggest than any civilization in the world. The total area is 13000000 Sq. Km roughly. This is greater than present Pakistan. It is 20 times bigger than contemporary Egyptian civilization, 12 times bigger than combined are of Egyptian and Sumerian civilization. Its boundaries as of today are 
- Northern- farthest site found was at Manda (Chenab River,Tributary of Indus),J & K.
- Southern -- farthest site found was at Daimabad, Maharashtra, Pravara River (Tributary of Godavari). At Daimabad initially Indus civilization flourished than later chalcolithic cultures prospered. It means initially it experienced urbanization and later low culture.
- Eastern - farthest site found was at Alamgipur, UP, Hindon River (Tributary of Yamuna).

- Western — farthest site found was at Sutkejandaro, Pakistan, at the borders of Afghanistan-Iran (Afghan-Iranian Border).
  • Indus Valley Civilization is a cosmopolitan culture, heterogeneous practices and cultures. 
  • Four races have built this Indus Valley Civilization & identified as Mongoloids, Proto-Austrolids, Alpinoids, Meditterian (Dravidians). Meditterian were major contributors. This is a racial term, whereas a Dravidian is a linguistic term. 
  • More than 300-400 cities have been excavated, so far.