advent of islam in history

 Islam

• According to historians, Islam was found in 6th -7th C AD.
• Prophet Mohammed was the founder of this religion. He was born in Mecca in 571 AD and then he founded this religion there. He died in Medina in 632 AD. The spread of Islam started from Medina. 
• Islam was a revolting religion born out of huge instability and agitation prevailing during those times in Saudi Arabia. Various tribes were living in the various uncivilised way. Polytheism and huge idolatry were in practice.
• Islam is a missionary religion.
• The literary meaning of Islam means surrender similar to that of Bhakti in Hinduism.
• Islam was founded on the basis of five principles/ Doctrines. The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers.
• The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed) or Kalima (kalma), (2) daily prayers (salat) or Namaz, (3) Roza or sawn, fasting during Ramadan and (4) almsgiving (zakah), (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime.
• The Shahadah or Kalima which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "ashadu al-la ilaha illla llahu wa aghadu anna muhammadan rasalu-llah", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God". This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.
• Whoever has faith in Kalima are called believers or faithful and Arabic term for the faithful is  'Muslim'. Whoever doesn't believe are non-believers and Arabic term for them was 'Kafir'.
• Sahib or Namaz or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day.
• Sawn or Roza or fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins.
• Zakat or aimsgiving, which is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also assist the spread of Islam.
• The Hajj, which is the pilgrimage during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.
• Prophet was hated initially by Meccaist. He was described as 'Majnu' (mad). There was a serious revolt against him. 
• During this revolt, in the year 622 AD - Prophet has migrated from Mecca to Madina and this process of migration is known as 'Hijra' (Hijra in Arabic means migration).
• People of Madina welcomed him and liked his preachings and took the Islam religion thereafter. Eventually, people started converting to Islam and Madina has become the place from where the spread of Islam started. By Sword spread of Islam started.
• In the year 630, Mecca was captured and all the idols in Kabah were destroyed and thereafter this has become a holy place for Islamites.
• Prophet became the spiritual and political head for a small domain and ruled with Mecca as the capital city. After his death in 632 AD, a serious issue of succession started as he doesn't have any male child except a female child.
• As per Sharia, an administrative law for Islamites - it says female cannot be a Calipha (an Arabic term for successor). 
• Two were the aspirants for being Caliphas. They were

                  1) Mohammed Ali - A great warrior and Son-in-law of Prophet 
                  2) Abu Bakar — A staunch follower and a senior person.

• Md Ali supporters were small in number a Minority number, whereas Abu Bakar has large group followers. So Abu Bakar has become Calipha. But this didn't digest for Md Ali's followers so they refused Abu Bakar. Thereafter this minority number came to known as Shias. And the majority numbers of Abu Bakar were known as Sunnis. This is the start of Schism in Islam.
• Shias give the status of Prophet to Mohammed Ali whereas Sunnis just consider him as a son-in-law. In the course of time, these two communities started hating each other and serious revolt and agitation started in them which led for many blood baths and carnages between them. (Recently Saddam Hussain a Sunni, who massacred Shias and issued policies and laws against Shias).
• Throughout the world, Shias are in the minority. Only 3% of Shias and 97% of Sunnis. In India majority of are in Hyderabad and Lucknow (as these two places were ruled by Shia rulers). These Shias in India are called as Iranians as they have come from Iran. Iran is only a country in the world with 100% Shias. Then comes Iraq with 60% Shias followed by 40% Sunnis.

Calipha

• Calipha is the political and spiritual head of the Islam domain. As per Sharia, there shall be only one spiritual and political head.
• In expanding the territory of Islam by conquering and converting, there never had a problem with the spiritual head but the political administration has become a problem. Islam was expanding in leaps and bounds. All Buddhist, Zoroastrians, Jains, Christian territories being conquered & converted by word or sword. 
• Islamic priestly class Ulema considers themselves as custodians of Sharia. The administration should be in accordance with Sharia and there should not be any deviation or blasphemy. These Ulema(s) have the Dower to issue Fatwa.
• Sultans of India ruled in the name of Calipha. They called themselves as representatives of Calipha. Coins were issued in his name to show the sovereignty of Calipha.
• Qutba — A special prayer on Friday. A chief priest read out the prayer in the name of Calipha.
• Sultans of India were sending periodical gifts for requesting or asking Calipha to admit them as subordinates.
• If Calipha was happy he would send a letter of acceptance called Mansoor.Indian rulers were struggling to get Mansoor. Only 3 rulers of India got the Mansoor. 

1. Iltutmish(Read as Altamash) 
2. Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq 
3. Feroz shah Tughlaq (He got Mansoor twice from two different Calipha(s)). 

• Even today Qutba is read in the name of first four Caliphas.

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Southern Dynasties - Chola Dynasty

Southern Dynasties - Chola Dynasty

Cholas Dynasty (850 - 1175)

• They ruled with Tanjavore as capital.

Parantaka- I

• Important King was Parantaka-I He took the title called 'Madurai Konda'. His two inscription of Uttarameru, TN issued in 10th C says about the local self-governments.
• Village administration was completely autonomous. Village panchayats are called Sabhas or Ur. Extreme powers are given to these panchayats. Judicial powers are also given. These were highly democratic and for election 'Kundavali' is the system. adopted.

Raja Raja- I

• Apart from Indian domains and territories he also conquered territories outside India.He captured Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Northern Srilanka.
• His counterpart or the contemporary king Of Srilanka was 'Mahinda V'.He was defeated by Raja Raja - I and his capital Anuradhapura were captured and destroyed.
• Cholas called their provinces as Mandalams. Northern Srilanka that.was captured by Raja. Raja was called as `Mummadichola Mandalam'.Raja Raja has a title called 'Mummadichola Deva'.

Rajendra- I

• He was son and successor of Raja Raja- I.
• He defeated Pala kings and annexed Parts of Bengal and Bihar.
• He took the title of `Gangaikonda' (Gangai = Ganga).
• Thereafter he built a new city called Gangaikonda.Cholapuram in Tamilnadu.
• He also occupied Southern Srilanka and 'Mahinda-V' who was hiding there was brought as a prisoner to Tanjavore. Now complete Srilanka was called as Mummadichola Mandalam.
• He also invaded Indonesia and defeated its king. Then he took another title called 'kadaram Konda'. Kadaram (now Penang) was capital that dynasty.

Kuluttonga- I

• He ruled between 11-12th Century
• During his reign, he lost control over Srilanka. Cholas were expelled. The Sinhala hero 'Vijayabahu the Great' who vanquished Cholas from Sri Lanka made every possible effort to restore what Cholas destroyed.
• In 1077, Kuluttonga-I has sent a huge embassy to China to improve Trade and Commerce relationship. This embassy consists of 72 members.
• He has also very diplomatic relationships with Cambodian Kings. His contemporary Cambodian king was Suryavarina-II.
• During his reign, two social groups which were rivals to each have emerged. There emerged is unknown, though they are

      ->  Valangai — means Right hand in Tamil
      ->  ldangai — means Left Hander in Tamil

• After the decline of Chola, there emerged two kingdoms in South.

      ->  Pandyan kingdom with capital at Madurai, Tamilnadu.
      ->  Hovasala kingdom with capital at Dwarasamudra(Present Helebiedu = Deserted Village).

• During Cholas period, complete Eastern coast (Bengal to Tamilnadu) was under their control. This as called as Cholamandalam (and this was anglicised by Britishers as Coromandal.
• Cholas were so successful because their Navy power was immense. They were the master of navy administration.
• Cholas emblem was the tiger.

Literature

• A great poet of this period was Kamban (circa 12th C). He translated Ramayana into 'Tamil'.
• Another scholar Jayangondor he wrote 'Salingattu Parani' (Parani = conquest, Conquest of Kalinga). and this book is on Kuluttonga and his conquest of Kalinga.
• Another Scholar. Sekkilar - he wrote Periyapuranam(a book on Shaivism).

Architecture 

• Temples are considered the best of South India. All the temples are in Dravidian style.
• The credit of strengthening the Dravidian style goes to Cholas. They have perfected this style by adding few new features like 

1. Gopuram:- A Gopuram or Gopura is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple. They function 'as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex. A gopuram is usually rectangular in form with ground-level wooden doors, often richly decorated, providing access. Above is the tapering gopuram, divided into many storeys which diminish in size as the gopuram tower narrows. Usually, the tower is topped with a barrel vaulted roof with a finial. Gopurams are exquisitely decorated with sculpture and carvings and painted with a variety of themes.Cholas built Gopurams in four directions.
2. Mantapa: It is a pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals. In the Hindu temple, the mandapa is a porch like structure through the (gopuram) (ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music and is part of the basic temple compound. The prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapas. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with intricate carvings.This has become an integral part of temple architecture.
3. Vimana: A multi-storied structure over the sanctum sanctorum is called Vimana. This is also in semi-pyramidal shape.

 Few important temples

• Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavore otherwise called as Rajarajeshwara temple. This was built by Raja Raja Chola. This is UNESCO World Heritage Centre.Vimana of this temple is so impressive - it is 13 storyed and almost 196 ft. This is considered tallest temple in India till date. This was built in 1010, recently millennium anniversary celebrations were held. Brihadeshwara Tupula weighs about 80 tonne (Tupula - A monolithic stone/ device kept on Vimana).
• Brihadeshwara temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. This is the 2nd best temple of Cholas. This was built by Rajendra I.
• Kampahareshwara Temple at Tribhuvanam, Tn. It was built by Kuluttonga I.
• Iravateshwara temple at Darasuram (Near Tanjavore). Built by Rajendra Chola II.
• Kuranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur. This was built by Parantaka I.
• Best sculptor of Chola period was 'Bronze Nataraja'. This is des described by scholars as 'Epitome of Chola art'. It has four hands. (Nataraja is a depiction of the Hindu god Shiva as the cosmic dancer who performs his divine dance to destroy a weary universe. The sculpture is usually made in bronze, with Shiva dancing in an aureole of flames, lifting his left leg and balancing over a demon or dwarf (Apasrnara) who symbolises ignorance. It is a well known sculptural symbol in India and popularly used as a symbol of Indian culture.)
• Hoyasala were best at architecture and arts and their sculptures have become a benchmark. Best temples of this kingdom were

     ->  Hoyasaleshwara Temple at Dwarasamudra
     ->  Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.

• These two are most beautiful temples of Hoysala architecture and they are built in Vesara Style. The outer panels are decorated with thousands of finely sculpted pictures.

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Mitakshara and Dayabhaga

Mitakshara and Dayabhaga

• The Mitakshara is a vivrti (legal commentary) on the Yajnavalkya Smriti best known for its theory of 'inheritance by birth'.
• The Dayabhaga is a Hindu law treatise written by Jirnutavahana (A Bengal Jurist of 12th Century) which primarily focuses on inheritance procedure. (Dayabhaga deals with the laws of inheritance based on Yajnavalkya Smriti/ Manu Smriti).
• The Mitakshara, along with the Dayabhaga, became an influential source for British Courts in India. The Mitakshara was influential throughout the majority of India, except in Bengal and Assam, where the Dayabhaga prevailed as an authority for law (In Bengal (and post-independence West Bengal and Tripura) and Assam, Dayabhag,-a was the principal guide for laws on inheritance till the enactment of the Hindu Succession Act; 1956). The British were interested in administering the law in India, but they wanted to administer the law that already existed to the people. Thus, they searched for a text that could be used to help solve disputes among the people of India in manners which were already customary in the sub-continent. These disputes often involved property rights or inheritance issues.
• Thus, the first translation of the Mitakshara was by 'Henry Thomas Colebrooke' (a Calcutta Supreme Court judge) in 1810 (because there was an immediate need in the British courts for the 'law' regarding inheritance that already existed among the people of India), and it was only this section of the text that gave the British insight on how to deal with inheritance issues. At that point, the Mitaksara held the status of a legislative text because it was used as a direct resource regarding inheritance in the courts of law in most of the India. Even he translated the Dayabhaga in 1810 through the use of manuscripts and Pandits.

Central differences between the Dayabhaga and the Mitaksara

The central difference between the texts is based upon when one becomes the owner of property. The Dayabhaga does not give the sons a right to their father's ancestral property until after his death, unlike Mitakshara, which gives the sons the right to ancestral property upon their birth.

Sons Inheritance

The son has no right to the father's ances- tral property until after his death, or the father's ownership becomes extinct through other means, such as being excluded from the caste or becoming ascetic_ This is in direct contrast to the Mitaksara, which gives the sons a claiin upon birth.

The Rights of the Widow

The widow succeeds the father's property rights on his death, even in cases where he held property jointly with his brother.

Ancestral Property

Dayabhaga states that the father is.the sole ruler of all property, both ancestral and personal. Unlike the Mitaksara, ancestral property is not seen as communal; therefore the father does not require the consent of his sons to act over the ancestral property_ The essential difference between the 'Dayabhaga' and the Mitaksara family is that the 'Dayabhaga' sees no difference between the father's total control over ancestral and personal property.

Personal Property

The father has the right to do as he wishes with his personal property in both the Mitaksara and the Dayabhaga.

Inheritance/ Succession

After the father's death, the sons will succeed his portion of the ancestral property. This can be done during the father's lifetime, but only if the father chooses to do so. The property is not communally owned by the family, as it is in the Mitaksara. Each son has the ability to do what he wishes with his portion of the property after his father's death.

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Deccan Dynasties: Rashtrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas

Deccan Dynasties

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (753-973 AD)

• These were the most significant kings of the period. No Kings of other dynasty were able to stand before these kings. Their empire sways from North- South. Many dynasties were their feudatories (like Cholas, Palas, Vemulavada Chalukyas, Vengi Chalukyas etc).
• Their military achievements were magnificent. Their contribution to Art and Architecture is most significant and remarkable. World's best and greatest cave temples were built by them. These were the last kings who patronized cave temples. After them, this cave temple activity lost its sheen and it was completely abandoned by next generation rulers.
• These rulers patronized Sanskrit literature apart from colloquial languages. Kannada literature was started in this epoch. The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly influenced by Jainism.
• These ruled with Ellora (Venul) now in Maharastra as their capital city.
• At Ellora, they have built 34 cave temples — 5 of them were Jain, 10-12 were Buddhists and rest were Shivas and Vaishnavas.

Dantidurga

• The first king of this dynasty was Dantidurga, who was a feudatory to Badami Chalukyas later he overthrew Kirtivarman II and declared himself independent.
• Dantidurga has built 2 cave temples at Ellora. They were
• Dashavatara cave temple (Cave No 15. This cave depicts the ten forms (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. The sculpture which portrays lord Narasimha killing Hiranyakashapu is beautiful and worth seeing. We see the anger on Narsingh's face while there is utter fear on Hiranyakashapu's face).
• Ravan Ka Khai (Cave No 14. This is a Shiva cave and is famous for a sculpture of Ravana holding the Kailash Mountain).

Krishna I

• Next, important king, the successor of Dantidurga was 'Krishna I' he built a cave temple at Ellora was known as Kailashanatha Temple (The 16th cave is famous all over the world as the Kailash cave or temple. It's an achievement in terms of architecture and sculpture and is a unique temple which has been made from a single rock face. It has been chiseled from top to bottom, which is extremely rare for temple architecture.
• This is perhaps biggest, greatest and magnificent rock cut cave temple in the World. This is a frank imitation of Kailashanatha temple of Kanchi built by Pallavans. So the style of sculpture in this temple is Dravidian. This is a monolithic structure. It is observed that for building this it took almost 100 yearS and 6 generations down the line.

Amoghavarsha I (814 - 878)

• Next, an important king was Amoghavarsha I (also Nrupathunga). He had the lengthy reign and considered greatest among the rest of all Kings of this dynasty.
• He built a new capital city called 'Manyakheta' and thus shifted his capital from Ellora to Manyakheta.
• He took the title 'Kaviraja'. He wrote 2 books called
• Kavirajamarga (First text of Kannada literature and this is the earliest available text of Kannada and this hook is on grammar).
• Prashnottara Ratnamalika (A Sanskrit book written in the form of Questions and Answers on Jainism. This is because Amoghavarsha was a staunch follower of Jainism).
• Amoghavarsha ended his life performing Sallekhana. Sallekhana he performed was in a different way. He didn't fast unto death but he submerged himself into holy waters of Tungabhadra and gave up his life.
• There were many Sanskrit scholars in his court. Few of them are Jinasena - he wrote 'Aadipurana'
• Saktayana - he Wrote 'Amogavriti' (A book on Grammar)
• Mahaviracharya - A Jain Mathematician - He wrote a great book on Mathematics called 'Ganitasarasangraha'. (Pauluri Mallana contemporaries to Nannaya translated this Ganitasarasangraha into Telugu).

Krishna III

• He took the title of 'Tanjavore Konda' (Conqueror of Tanjavore, the capital city of Cholas).
• In 949 AD battle of Takkolam, Chola Emperor Parantaka Chola was defeated. After the battle, Krishna III erected a victory pillar at Rameshwaram.
• The last king was Karka, he was killed by one of his Samantha (feudatory) called Tailapa II, who went on to form Kalyani Chalukyas.

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/eastern-indian-dynasties-palas-and-sena.html

Kalyani Chalukyas (973 — 1189)

This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukyas after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka.

Vikramaditya VI

• One important king of this dynasty is Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126). Two scholars adorned his court and they are
• Bilhana - He wrote Vikramadevacharita (it is a eulogy of the King), written in Sanskrit.
• Vijnanesvara - Around in the late eleventh and early twelfth century. He wrote Mitaksara. He was a "profound student of the Purva-Mimamsa system," a system of exegetical thought focused on the interpretation of the Vedas.

Someshwara III

• Another King, Someshwara IlI - he wrote a Sanskrit book called 'Manasollasa'. This book has another name called 'Abhilashitarthachintamani'.
• He took the title called 'Sarvagna'.
• After the decline of Kalyani Chalukyas, two kingdoms have emerged in Deccan which were earlier feudatories. They are
• Yadava Kingdom (Maharastra region) with Devagiri as capital. In the Yadava court, an astronomer 'Bhaskaracharya' lived and he wrote books like 'Siddantha Shiromani' a book on Mathematics and Leelavathi a book on Astronomy.
• Kakatiyas (Andhra Region) with Warangal as capital.

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Eastern Indian Dynasties - Palas and Sena

Eastern Indian Dynasties - Palas and Sena

For 350 years Palas were rulers of Bihar and Bengal for next 100 years thereafter Sena's were rulers of Bihar and Bengal.

Palas Dynasty :

• It was ruled by a Buddhist dynasty from Bengal in the eastern region of the Indian subcontinent, all the rulers bearing names ending with the suffix Pala, which means protector. The Palas were often described by opponents as the Lords of Gauda.
• Gopala was the first ruler of the dynasty. He came to power in 750 in Gaur by a democratic election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the Maha Janapadas. He reigned from 750-770 and consolidated his position by extending his control over all of the Bengal.
• These were the patronizers of Vajrayana Buddhism. These are the last rulers of India to patronize Buddhism. These ruler's propagated Buddhism in Tibet.
• One king `Dharmapala' - He built Vikramashila University', Bihar. This is a Vajrayana University.
• His son and successor `Devapala' was next king. He shifted the capital from Pataliputra to Monghyr - Nalanda copper plate inscription. The context says, "A Vihara at Nalanda was built by Balaputradeva (A Buddhist Indonesia King). For its maintenance, Devapala donated five villages to this Vihara.

• Monks (patronized by Palas) who propagated Vajrayanism in Tibet were    

         - Padmasambhava

         - Atisadeepankara

         - Shantarakshita

• The last king 'Madanapala' was assassinated by Kannadiga Senapati 'Vijayasena'. Then he founded Sena dynasty.

Sena Dynasty :

• The dynasty's founder was Hemanta Sen, who was part of the Pala dynasty until their empire began to weaken. He usurped power and styled himself king in 1095 AD.
• Capital was `Laknauti'

Lakshmana Sena:

• Very important and as well as last king of this dynasty was 'Lakshmana Sena'.
• A Vaishnava saint was in court called 'Jayadeva'. He wrote a Sanskrit book called 'Geetagovindam' (For Vaishnaivism this book is considered as authoritative).
• He was the last Hindu ruler of Bihar and Bengal.
• 1194 — Bhaktiyar Khilji (One of the officers of Md Ghori) marched into Laknauti and scored an easy victory because Lakshmana Sena didn't offer any resistance.
• Bhaktiyar Khilji after conquering he destroyed all the universities in Bihar(both Nalanda and Vikramashila). Not only destroyed but massacred the Buddhist monks taken shelter in those universities. This brought an end to Buddhism in India.This is often referred by Historians as a deathly blow to Buddhism and deems Khilji as the person who nailed the last into the Buddhist coffin. 
• By the end of 12th C Buddhism completely disappeared froth India. After Palas, no other kings in India patronized  Buddhism.

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/chauhan-chahamana-and-gahadavala.html

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Chauhan (Chahamana) and Gahadavala dynasties

Chauhan (Chahamana) and Gahadavala dynasties

Chauhan or Chahamana:

These were the masters of Rajasthan ruled with 'Ajmer' as capital.

Prithviraj Chauhan III:

• He is the last king and great king of this dynasty ruled from 1179 - 1192.
•  A scholar in his court 'Chand Bardai' - He wrote a book called 'Prithivirajaraso' (it is considered as Early Hindi literature and earliest available text of Hindi language).
• Two battles were fought between 'Prithviraj Chauhan III'  and 'Mohammed Ghori'. Both battles were fought at Taneshwar, so these battles are called Battle of Taneshwar or Battle ofTarain. In the first battle around 1191 Ghori was humiliated and defeated. Later in second battle around 1192 'Prithviraj Chauhan III' was killed and Ajmer was conquered. Thereafter, Ghori left annexing the empire and installing one of his governors 'Qutub-ud-din-Aibak' as in charge of Ajmer.

Gahadavala Dynasty :

• These were the rulers of parts of North-India with Kanauj as their capital.
• 'Chandradova' founded the Gahadavala dynasty at Kanyakubja after defeating a chief named 'Gopala'.
• After Gurjara Pratihara decline these came to power. 

Jayachandra:

• The last king of this dynasty was 'Jayachandra'. He refused to aide Prithviraj Chauhan III when Ghori invaded. This is an irrevocable mistake he committed.
• A Sanskrit scholar named 'Sri Harsha' was in his court. He wrote Naishada Charita (Kavi Srinatha translated this into Telugu and named it as 'Sringhara Naishadam').
• In 1194 - A battle was fought at Chandvar,UP between him and Ghori. Md Ghori invaded and defeated Jayachandra. Ghori killed Jayachandra and annexed the kingdom and ended the Gahadavala dynasty.

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Paramara or Pawar Dynasty and Solanki Dynasty

Paramara or Pawar Dynasty and Solanki Dynasty

Paramara or Pawar Dynasty 

• These ruled over MP with Dhar (ancient Dhara Nagari) as capital.
• Upendra founded this dynasty in 800 C.

Bhoja:

• Bhoja one great king of this dynasty - he was a great conqueror, administrator, warrior and a scholar indeed. He wrote almost 24 books in Sanskrit and took the title `Kaviraja'. Few of his books are 

1. Ayurvedasarvaswa (Book on medicine).
2. Samarangana Sutradhara (Book on principles of Architecture).
3. Rajamruganka (Book on Yoga).
4. Tatvaprakasha (Book on Shaivism and Philosophy).

• He also founded a city called Bhojpur in Madhya Pradesh. In Bhojpur, a Sanskrit college called Saraswati Kantabharana Vidyalaya' or simple 'Bhojashala' was established. He was a devotee of Saraswati (Vaagdevi).

Solanki Dynasty 

• These ruled over Gujarat for almost 350 years with Annihilwara (Siddhpur Patan) as the capital city. Solankis are a Hindu Agnivanshi Rajput clan of Gurjar.
• Mulraj Solanki (942-996) overthrew Samantsinh Chavda in 942 and set up what came to be known as the Solanki dynasty.

Bhima Dev I:

• 1025 - Mohammed Ghazini's invaded India for the 16th time and this time on Solanki dynasty. He attacked Somnatha temple and demolished it completely. (In olden days treasure and donations of various devotees were stored in the temple. So these were the major attractions for invaders for satisfying their zeal for wealth). Later this temple was reconstructed by Bhima Dev I.

• A Jain Minister Vimala was in his court. This man built a beautiful Jain temple at Dilwara on  Mt.Abu in Rajasthan. This temple is the finest temple of Jainism in India, White marble was used and magnificent carvings are done on the walls of the temple. This temple is also known as Vimalashahi temple.
• Shantacharya and Suracharya were two Jain saints during his reign.

Jayasimha Siddaraja and Kumarapala:

• Other Kings of this dynasty were Jayasimha Siddaraja and his son 'Kumarapala'.
• The court of both of the kings was adorned by a greatest Jain scholar called 'Hemachandra'. This scholar has a title called 'Kalikala Sarvagna' (Sarvagna — encyclopedia and Kali — The present age as per mythology). He wrote books in Sanskrit like

1.       Trisasti Shaiakapurusha (Trisasti means 63. In Jainism after Tirthankaras there were 63 monks called Shalakapurushas).

2.       Parisistaparvan

3.       Kumarapala charitha (Book on the king Kumarapala)

4.       Neminatha charitha (Neminatha, a Jain Tirthankara)

Bhima Dev II :

• He came to the throne around 1178. In the battle of Mt.Abu between Mohammed Ghori and Bhima,Ghori  was defeated.There were two Jain ministers in his court. These ministers built few temples at Dilwara.

- Vastupal

- Tejapal

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/03/chandela-dynasty.html

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Chandela Dynasty

Chandela Dynasty

• Ruled over Bundelkhand (Bundelkhand has also known jaijak bhukti or Jejaka bhukti). The region is now divided between the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, with the larger portion lying in the latter.
• Nannuk, the founder of the Chandela dynasty.
•  According to inscriptions, he was the chief of his clan in the first quarter of the ninth century. Epigraphic records show that Khajuraho then called Khajuravatika - Bearer of Dates or Khajuravatica - Garden of Dates, was the stronghold of Nannuk and his people. Later on, his descendants linked their lineage with the Moon or with Chandratreya of the legend, in order to attribute some divine links to the origin of their dynasty.
• Capitals of this dynasty

                  - Khajuraho, MP (In fact this is their cultural capital)

                  - Mahoba, UP Mahotsava Nagar

• Best Niagara style temples were built by them. In fact, the most beautiful temples of India at Khajuraho were built by them.
• Almost 80 temples were built by them in and around Khajuraho. Last only 25 are surviving today. Few of them are

                 - Vishwantaha Temple 

                 - Kandariya mahadeva temple

                 - Chaturbhuia temple

                 - Lakshmana temple

                 - Devi Jagadamba

                 - Adinatha Temple (1st Tirthankara)

                 - Parsvanatha Temple.

These temples are beautifully decorated with many sculptures and mostly erotic sculptures of Mithunas (A mythological romantic couple).

• The first inscriptions of Hindi were issued by these kings in 10th C. AD. These were the first kings to issue in Hindi.
• One of the kings of this dynasty called Ganda; he fought with Ghazini and was defeated. 

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/03/gurjara-pratihara-dynasty.html

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Muslim Invaders — a little insight

Muslim Invaders - a little insight

First Invader:

• Mohammed Bin Khasim (Bin means son of and Bintey for daughter of). He invaded India in 712 AD.

Second Invader: Mohammed Ghazini

• Ghazini now in Afghanistan is the capital city of his empire.
• He invaded India in 11th century AD.
• He invaded India 17 times in the time span between 1000 - 1027.
• All the 17 times he emerged victoriously.
• He was a frenetic warrior and his military was strongest.
• He came to India to loot wealth and satisfy his religious zeal.
• He didn't have any political ambition or to annex the kingdoms or expansion of his territory. So his invades can be said as raids.

Third Invade:Mohammed Ghori

• He invaded India more than half dozen times.
• He wasn't victorious every time.
• He had lost many battles.
• Even his capital was Ghazini.
• After Mohammed Ghazini deceased he claimed power and occupied Ghazini, but he doesn't have any relation to the early Ghazini dynasty. 
• He invaded India with political ambitions.
• He wanted to expand his territory and his sovereignty.
• So he annexed all the kingdoms whenever he defeated them.
• He left a significant impact on Indian Territory and history of India.
• He started Muslim rule in India.
• He was responsible for MuSlim rule in India.

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Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

• Gurjara is the name of race and Pratihara is the family name and these kings dominated parts of North-India and ruled from Kannauj as capital. 

• Gurjar Pratiharas believe they were one of Agnikula clans of Rajputs, deriving their origin from a sacrificial fire pit (Agni Kundra) at Mount Abu.

• Harichandra is said to have laid the foundation of this dynasty in the 6th century. 

Mihira Bhoja:

• Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha which is inscribed on some of his coins.
• Bhoja's kingdom extended to Narmada River in the South, Sutlej River in the North-West river and up to Bengal in the East. It extended over a large area from the foot of the Himalayas up to the river Narmada. 
• He was a bitter enemy of the Muslim invasions who, according to an Arab chronicler, Sulaiman, maintained a large army and had a fine cavalry.
• Many temples made by him still survive. Teli Mandir, near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, marks the presence of Vishnu on earth. The temple's architecture, design, and layout feature an outstanding fusion of architectural styles. The roof resembles a Dravidian style while the decoration highlights the art of North India. He was a scholar and respected learned persons.

Mahendrapala:

• King of this dynasty belonging to 10th C.
• A Sanskrit scholar adorned his court by the name 'Rajashekara'.Few books of him are

               Karpuramanjira
               Kavyaniyamamsa

               Bhuvanakhosham

               Haravilasam

               Viddhasalabhanjika

Rajyapala:

• King of this dynasty belonging to 11th C.
• In the year 1018 — Mohammad Ghazini invaded Kannauj destroyed and looted the wealth.

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/03/chandela-dynasty.html

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