Ancient Buddhism

Ancient Buddhism

Gautama buddha history

Mahatma Buddha is a humanist, who believes society/person is a greater than the God. Worship of man, worship of poor is important than worshipping of God. He was an Atheist. Gurunanak & Vivekananda are also humanists.

Introduction to Buddhism

• Life of Buddha - As per Buddhist texts 566-486 BC.
• Mahatma Buddha was born in Kshatriyas and he is a Sakya.
• His father Shuddodana and ruler of small Himalayan Kingdom of Kapilavasthu.
• His mother's name is Mahamaya, and she gave birth to Siddhartha (Initial name of Buddha) at Lumbini now in Nepal.
• Lotus - Symbolises the birth of Buddha.
• His wife's name is Yashodhara and son is Rahul.
• Mahabhinishkrama is a going ceremony or Great Departure and Horse became his symbol.
• At an age of 35, Siddhartha became Buddha - Tathagatha. He got enlightened and became Tathagatha. He then got in meditation.
• Sambodhi - Enlightenment of Buddha, Gaya (place) - Bodhi (Pipal Tree - Symbol).
• Sermon - A religious lecture is called a sermon.
• The first sermon of Buddha is called as Dharma chakra Parivartana and first sermon was given at Sarnath.
• Dharma chakra Parivartana - Sarnath, Kashi

                 --> A wheel with 8 spokes, this indicated Astangamarga.
                 --> Vishnu Chakra — Spokes
                 --> Ashoka Chakra — 24 Spokes

• Kusinara/Kusi(UP) - Death place of Buddha.
• Mahaparinirvana - Kusi Stupa (symbol).
• The stupa is a sacred structure which is built on the relics of Buddha. The stupa is a semi-domical solid structure made of bricks. Buddhist calls this as 'Anda' Prakara and 'Torana' are outer structures and 'Pradakshinapata' and 'Anda' are inner parts. Sanctum Sanctorum is not present in Stupa. Circumambulation is allowed. The stupa is the latest Buddhist religious monument and was originally only a simple mound of mud or clay to cover supposed relics of the Buddha (cetiya). After the Parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight stupas with two further stupas encasing the urn and the embers. Little is known about these early stupas, particularly since it has not been possible to identify the original ten monuments.

Symbolism

"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire, his head is the square at the spire's base, his body is the vase shape, his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace, and the base is his throne".

Five purified elements

Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five ,Purified elements:

          --> The square base represents earth.

          --> The hemispherical dome/vase represents water

          --> The conical spire represents fire

          --> The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents air

          --> The sun and the dissolving point represents the element of space

• There are two reasons stupas were built after the historical Buddha Sakyamuni died

            --> To commemorate eight great deeds accomplished during his life

            --> To enshrine relics after he passed away

            --> The Eight Great Deeds

1. Birth: Built at Lumbini
2. Enlightenment: Built in the kingdom of Magadha, on the banks of the river Nairanjana
3. Turning to the Wheel, the first teaching: Built at Sarnath (Varanasi)
4. Miracles: Built at Sravasti
5. Descent from Tushita: Built at Samkashya after Buddha returned from Tushita heaven, where he'd gone to give teachings to his mother
6. Reconciliation: Built at Rajagriha, after Buddha reconciled the disagreements of the monks
7. Complete Victory: Built at Vaishali, where Buddha meditated extensively.
8. Parinirvana: Built at Kushinagara, where Buddha entered Mahaparinirvana.

• Different kinds of Buddhist Monuments were

            --> Stupa - Monument of the Mahatma Buddha
            --> Chaitya - A prayer hall of the Monks and nuns
            --> Vihara/Arama -the residences of monks & nuns.

Doctrines of Buddhism

• Four Noble truths - As universal truths

1. Dukha - The world is full of sorrows
2. Desires - Dukha is caused by human desires
3. Nirodha - It can be prevented
4. Marga - There is a way to come out of Dukha

Teachings of Buddha(Gautama buddha teachings)

• Astangamarga - Eightfold path (Central theme of Buddhism)

1. Right Speech - Always speak well
2. Right Action - Do Good
3. Right Vision
4. Right Aim - Aim must be good & positive
5. Right Effort
6. Right livelihood - be Honest
7. Right Awareness
8. Right meditation - That gives peace

• The middle path - Avoid the extremes of anything
• Pratitya Samutpada - that refers to the causal relations between the psychophysical phenomena that sustain dukkha (dissatisfaction) in worldly experience
• God & Mahatma Buddha - Scholars described Buddha as Agnostic - who neither accepts nor rejects the God. No comments on God. Mostly, Atheism.

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Pre Mauryan Age

Pre-Mauryan Age (600 BC - 300 BC)

This age can be termed as Pre- Mauryan Age / Age of Buddha / Age of  "Shodasa Maha Janapadas" (Shodasa - 16, Maha - Great, Janapadas - Kingdoms).

Political System 

•  Anguttara Nikaya — A Buddhist text of this age contains a list of 16 kingdoms. 

1. Magadha - 1st Rajagruha (Rajgeer — Bihar), later Pataliputra (Patna)
2. Anga - Champa (Bihar)
3. Vajji or Lichachavi - Vaishali (Bihar)
4. Kashi - Varanasi ( UP)
5. Kasala - Shravashi (UP)
6. Vatsa Kaushambi (Kasam close to Allahabad)
7. Kuru 1st Hastinapur (Meerut, UP) and 2nd Indraprastha (Delhi)
8. Sourasena Mathura (UP)
9. Panchala Ahichachatra (UP)
10. Malla 1st Kusi (UP) and 2nd Pava (Bihar)
11. Matsya Vir a tnagar (Rajsathan — Jaipur)
12. Chedi Suktimati (MP)
13. Avanti Ujjain (MP)
14. Garighadhara Thakshashila(Rawalpindi — Pakistan)
15. Ka mboja Rajapura (Mujapurabad — Pakistan)
16. Asmaka Podana (Bodan —AP) 

• 600 BC - 350 BC - Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked with the reign of Asoka Maurya, one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. Reasons may be like

          -->Geographical
          -->Human factors - Most powerful Kings are present in Magadha

• According to the Puranas, the Magadha Empire was established by the Brihadratha Dynasty, who was the 'sixth in line from Emperor Kuru of the Bharata dynasty through his eldest son Sudhanush. The first prominent Emperor of the Magadhan branch of Bharathas was Emperor Brihadratha. His son Jarasandha appears in popular legend and is slain by Bhima in the Mahabharata. Vayu Purana mentions that the Brihadrathas ruled for 1000 years.

• The Brihadrathas were succeeded by the Pradyotas who according to the Vayu Purana ruled for 138 years. One of the Pradyota traditions was for the prince to kill his father to become king. During this, it is reported that there were high crimes in Magadha. The people rose up and elected Haryanka to become the new king, which destroyed the power of the Pradyotas and created the Haryanka dynasty: Due in part to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the emergence of the Haryanka-dynasty. 

• Sanskrit Language - Language of great intellectuals of ancient India (Brahman) not for common man. 

• There are two more languages used by common people in ancient India.

1. Pali - Buddha adopted Pali so it became Buddhist language
2. Prakrit - Became the language of Jains
3. But both the languages disappeared later on 

• Prakrit has various dialects

1. Magadhi - All Ashokan inscriptions
2. Artha Magadha - All Jain inscriptions and literature
3. Maharastri - Sathavahana literature
4. Paisachi

• Magadha was ruled by 3 different dynasties

1. Haryanka (name of the family)
2. Sisunaga
3. Nanda

Kings of Haryanka 

• According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BC, whose capital was later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna.
• Bimbisara - 1st King of Magadha and founder of Haryanka. He conquered Anga and Kasi Kingdoms. He married Princess Kasala Mahadevi. He got the Kasi Kingdom as dowry from Kasala.
• Ajatasatru - Son of Binibisara - 2nd king of Magadha. He is a patricide. He came to power by killing his father. He conquered Kasala, Vajji and Malla Kingdoms.
• Udayana/Udayabhadra - 3rd King of Magadha - Son of Ajatasatru. He was the weak king so Udayana was killed by his Senapati 'Sisunaga'. Then Magadha kingdom was closed and Sisunaga came to power.

Kings of Sisunaga 

• Sisunaga 1st King and founder. He conquered Avanthi.
• Kalashoka - He is the son of Sisunaga. He was the 2nd and last king of this dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda killed Kalashoka and came to power establishing Nanda Kingdom (350 BC).

Kings of Nanda

• Mahapadmananda - He conquered all the Janapadas left over including the Asmaka Kingdom. Up to Godavari basin, he conquered and he was the 1st king to conquer the South India. He is considered as the Greatest of Magadha. The first Sudra King of India - Mahapadmananda. Jain by religion. He conquered all the kingdoms except two kingdoms of North-West of India.
• Gandhara and Kamboja Kingdoms - Nanda Kings didn't touch these kingdoms. Even Haryanka & Sisunaga kingdoms also didn't.
• Dhanananda — Son of Mahapadma Nanda. He was defeated and the power had been captured by Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC). Thereafter Mauryans came into power.

History of Gandara & Kamboja Kingdoms

• Around 600 BC — Iranians/Persians were very powerful emperors in the world. These kingdoms are in the Iranians province.
• Cyrus — 1st foreign conqueror of India.
• Darius I — (Cyrus grandson) then came to power.
• Persians used 'Hi' instead of 'Si' (Sindhu — Hindu). So is the name Hindustan.
• Two great empires in the world at this time were Macedonian (Greeks) and Iranian (Persia). There exists a lot of conflicts between both the kingdoms.
• 'Alexander' (334 BC) was the conqueror of the world for the first time. His teacher was Aristotle.
• Darius III (329 BC) was killed by Alexander and ends the Iranians.
•  Ambhi - King of Taxila (Thakshashila). He gave an invitation to Alexander. Rival of Ambhi is 'Porus'. Hence Alexander came to India
• 327BC - 325 BC — Alexander spent 19 months in India.
• 326 BC — Battle of Hydaspus (River Jhelum) with Porus. Porus was then defeated by Alexander and he conquered all the territories.
• When Alexander was in India, The contemporary Magadha king Dhanananda was in power.
• 323 BC — Alexander died at Babylonia (At the age of 33 or 34 ).
• Three Greek Empires were Ended after Alexander's death.

1. Europe — Macedonia(Headquarters)
2. Africa — Egypt (Headquarters)
3. Asia — Syria (Headquarters)

• Seleucid Empire was founded by military commander 'Seleucus Nicator' in Asia.

Economic System

• Metal coins - 1st coins of India started around 600 BC. Silver & Copper both sorts of metal coins used.
• Punch marked coins made up of silver/copper are used. Coins marked with a tree/hill/bird/sun/moon etc are punch marked coins. These coins are uninscribed.
• The growth of Guilds — Guild is an English word but Indian literature it is called 'Sreni' (Guilds are associations of merchants& Traders). Every guild works like a modern banking system. Few of them

1. Kalika Sreni (Weaver's Guild)
2. Pathika Sreni (Pattu - silk Guild)
3. Telika Sreni (Oil Maker Guild)
4. Kulala Sreni (Potters Guild)
5. Gandhika Sreni (Perfumer Guild) — (Mahatma Gandhi belong to this guild)

Religions of Pre- Mauryan Age 

• This period produced many great intellectuals.
• 62 philosophical movements, which were completely against with the rituals & Brahmanistic society. These movements are called 'Heterodox'. Heterodox - Means Unorthodox. Shreemana and Orthodox are Brahaminates. All those were against the Brahmanas called Shreemana.
• In 62 movements, 4 prime and fully fledged religions were

1. Buddhism
2. Jainism
3. Ajivika
4. Charvaka

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Political System and Religious Changes in Aryan Civilization

Political System 

Phase I 

• Every tribe has a leader who is elected i.e., it is not hereditary and is called `Rajan' a clear example of Republican way.
• Sabha, Samithi (tribal assemblies) are very much there & Rajan is answerable to these assemblies.
• Duties of Raja — Protect Jana (People), Pasti (Cattle). 
• There is no concept of Janapada (Kingdom). No kingdoms were established (Pastoral economy, Nomadic life is the reason.
• Fierce inter-tribal wars were fought for cattle-lifting but not for territory. The term for .war in Rig Veda is `Gavisthi'.
• `Dasaragna' (Battle of Ten Kings) is the famous battle. mentioned in Rig Veda, this war was fought between Baratha clan and Kuru clan  along with his 9 allies as a confederation. Thus, the battle was fought on the banks of Parushni River (raavi). The king of Bharatha was Sudama and he emerged victoriously.
•  [Bharatha son of Shakuntala & Dushyanta; Shakunthala daughter of Vishwa Mitra & Menaka; every time a reference about Vishwamitra is made, but nothing is known about him; these are the only characters created by Great Kalidasa but not historical figures.]
• Various officers in administration and bureaucracy, these officers assist Rajan.

1. Purohit
2. Senapati
3. Vrajapati (Pasture  lands in charge)
4. Gramani (Head of a Village) 

•  Source of income — Bali (it not a tax, but voluntary offering; tax concept hasn't evolved yet) 

Phase II 

• Janapada - Territorial states have formed, many kingdoms emerged.
• Monarchical System - It is not democratic but it is totally autocratic.
• Tribal identity is merged into territorial identity
• Primary goal is protecting territories
• The tax system was introduced: Bagha (share) is the tax, Bhagadug - Tax collector in Later Vedic Period.  Sangrahitri is the treasure. 

Religious Changes 

Phase I 

• Worship of natural forces — Plants, Earth, Sun, Moon, Water, Weather, Fire, and Wind
• Anthropomorphic and human characteristic are attributed to Gods.

1. Indra -- He is personification of weather as well as war god
2. Varuna -- Water
3. Agni -- God of Fire
4. Tvastri -- Volcano
5. Vayu -- God of Wind
6. Surya -- Sun
7. Sama -- Plant
8. Aswins -- Gods are Medicinal Plants
9. Marut -- Gods of Thunder Storm 
10. Ushas -- Dawn
11. Aditi -- Goddess of Earth
12. Savitri -- Morning Light or Bright Light

• Methods of worshiping was very simple; through compiling and chanting prayers and through offerings like vegetables, flowers, soma, drink (It is a ritual drink and in particular to India who is also known as 'Somapa'.
• Rig Veda religion was highly materialistic. 

Phase II 

• Three Supreme Gods, have emerged — trinity 

1. Prajapati Later he became Brahma; Function -- Creator.
2. Rudra -- He is a destroyer of Evils.
3. Vishnu -- He the protector.

• Religion became ritualistic and animals sacrifices.
• Highly spiritual and speculative (nonmaterialistic).

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Economy and Society aspects in Aryan Civilization

Economy

Phase -I

• Pastoral Economy (based on animal domestication) is primary. Agrarian is on a limited scale, secondary.
• In Rig Veda a food grain mentioned as 'Yava' (Wheat and Barley) was cultivated on a limited scale.
• A metal was also used called 'Aya' (Copper and Bronze) .
• Only Local trade & Commerce was carried on.
• A Jem mentioned in Rig Veda called 'Suvarna Nishka'; it served the purpose of a coin, believed by the scholars.

Phase -II

• Agrarian Economy is the primary reason because in this phase people moved towards Gangatic basic which are very fertile and virgin lands. Pastoral wasn't totally abandoned but on a limited scale.
• Vrihi a food grain, known as paddy is grown here.
• It was after 1000 BC iron began to be used this is called as 'Krishnaya' by later Vedic people.
• Much improved Trade & Commerce.
• Urbanization for the first time in the Indo-Gangatic basin has taken place. The first cities were

- Hastinapur, UP

- Kaushambi, UP (modern Kosam)

- Ahichachatra, UP (Modern Rae Bareli)

Society

Phase -I

• Patriarchal joint family system. Senior male member is the head of the family and called Kulapa.
• There is the class system but not a caste system. This hasn't emerged yet. Three classes were existing

                                 i.            Priest Classes

                               ii.            Warrior Classes

                              iii.            Commoners(Rest of the people) 

• Social mobility and profession mobility freedom are given. Freedom to move between classes is there. Upward or downward mobility is possible. Professions are neither hereditary nor exclusive.
• Aslokain Purushasukta, that deals with 'caste system' that belongs to Rig Veda, it was added later.
• Interdining & interclass marriages much prevailed.

- Higher class/caste man marries lower class/caste woman it is called Anuloma (Hypergamous Marriage)

- Lower class/caste man marries higher class/caste woman it is called Pratiloma (Hypergamous Marriage)

Position of Women:

• Women are given independence, equality, and freedom. Society was more mature.
• Poly Andrey also practiced in Rig Vedic Period.
• No kind of gender domination, no gender discrimination.
• No child marriages.were allowed. There is a clear indication in one of Rig Veda hymn that marriage is allowed only after attaining puberty.
• Women were equally literate and intellectual. More than 20 women scholars were mentioned in Rig Veda. A women scholar named 'Gosha' means 'rishi' is very much respected. She didn't marry (a spinster) and spent her entire life in pursuit of education staying at parent's house.
• There are mentioning(s) of Sati but only symbolic not actually practiced.
• No reference about widow marriages, but not restricted. This can be said from a word 'Niyogi' is found in Rig Veda it means - A Widow can marry the brother of the deceased husband (In English Levitate).
• Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh was placed where 'Viragals' were found. Stone raised on tombs of soldiers dead in the war. They are also called hero stones. In Tamilnadu, these are called as 'Nadukkul'.

Phase II:

• Chaturvarna (four castes) system emerged.

i) Brahmanas

ii) Kshatriyas

iii) Vysyas

iv) Sudras

• Social mobility is completely checked. Upward/Downward movement is not allowed.
• No Inter-dining is allowed.
• Anuloma is legal but not Pratiloma.
• The off-springs of the Pratilorna marriage are called 'Chandala' (Scavenger).
• The dignity of women is no more seen. Complete suppression of women rights through various social evil practices.
• Child marriage is practiced. A text of this period says 'ideal marriage of a bride is a 1/3rd age of groom'.
• Sati became compulsory, widow marriages were tabooed.
• Polygyny is accepted but not polyandry.

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Vedic / Aryan Civilization (1500 BC - 600 BC)

Original Home

• The original home of Aryans is still a point of debate. So there are many hypotheses. One of such is - The scholars who opened Saptha Sindhu as a home of Aryans were Sampurna Anand and A.C.Das. Sapta Sindhu (Afghanistan, Himalaya, Yamuna & Aravalli as boundaries that land is called Sapta Sindhu)- Seven Rivers

§  Saraswati

§  Sindhu (Indus)

§  Parushni (Raavi)

§  Vitasa (Jhelum)

§  Vipasa (Beas)

§  Satudri (Sale)

§  Asikini (Chenab)

--Tibet - Expressed by Dayanand Saraswati.

--Arctic - Bala Gangadhar Tilak is written a book titled "Arctic, The Home of Aryan".

--Germany - Almost by European historians.

--Central Asia - This is mostly accepted and sounds rational theory & proposed by Max Muller. He is a German Indologist and Sanskrit professor in German Universities. He translated Rig Veda into English. He proposed that Aryans came from Central Asia. His theory is based on Philology (Study of languages and their comparisons) and Epigraphy.

• There is a very old inscription at a place Bhogazkoi (Turkey) which belongs to Aryans (1400 BC). This supports the Max Muller theory. There is a reference in the script that says Aryans are moving towards Eastern along with their Gods like Indra, Varuna...etc).
•  Aryan Civilization, we study in two parts (phases).

                 --- 1500 BC - 1000 BC (Early Vedic culture/ Rig Vedic Culture) - Phase I.

                 --- 1000 BC - 600 BC (Later Vedic period) - Phase II.

• Rig Veda is the earliest and written in the first phase. so the phase is named after this. No other book is available to study the first phase except Rig Veda. Only with this Rig Veda, this phase is studied.
• The reason to study the AC in two phases is because after a 1000BC tremendous change came in culture. No matter Geography has a major role in it. Location of the first phase and second are different. By the end of the first phase, people began to move towards east Gangatic.

• This civilization is developed by Aryans, who are believed to be foreigners (People from Central Asia). We call them Aryans because they speak Aryan. So it is a linguistic term. These people belong to the Nordic region.
• These people composed a large number of Vedic literature this is called Vedic civilization. The first text was prepared by Aryan. Historic age began with the advent of Aryan.
•  700-800 cities/sites have been excavated. Archeologist gave this civilization name as "Painted Grey Ware". Because they found pottery of gray color and painted  at many  sites.
• Vedic literature is .completely sacred, pious and not secular. Later this formed a pillar of Hindu religion.
• Aryan literature can be divided into 8 parts

1. Vedas

2. Brahmanas

3. Aranyaka

4.Upanishads

5. Vedangas

6. Puranas

7.Upavedas

8. Ithihasa

Literature:

Vedas

•  Rig Veda has got 1028 hymns

- Divided into 10 Mandalams / Chapters

- The name of 10th chapter is Purusha Sukta and here one sloka refers about 'Caste System".

• Yajur Veda - Rituals
• Sama Veda - Deals with music
• Atharvana Veda - Contains magical issues to deal with diseases (Mantras)

Brahmanas 

These are '7' and all these deal with rituals.

• Aitereya Brahmana
• Shulapata Brahmana
• Kausitika Brahmana

Aranyakas

• Books related to forest living hermit i.e., Rishis, certain Aranyankas are appended to Brahmanas. So '7' Aranyankas added to '7' Brahmanas.

Upanishads

They are 108 in total in number

• Chandogya
• Gruhadranyaka
• Mundokap ("Satya Meva Jayathe" comes from this)
• Shwetheswatara
• Jabalo

Vedanga

• They are six in number

Siksha — Phonetics

Nirpkta — Etymology (Origin of words)

Vyakarna — Grammar

Chandassu — Metrics

Jyothishya — Astrology

Kalpa — Rituals

• There are three parts of Kalpa.

• Grihasutra — Home rituals (16 rituals are to be performed and maintained / described in Grihasutra). One such ritual is Upanayana. Dvija are 'Twice-born' and Ekaja are 'Single born'. The performance of Upanayana ritual is like being born once again. So who ever do this ritual is Dvija and rest who does not perform is Ekaja. The performance of this ritual is confined only to People/Male of Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vysyas are only allowed for Upanayana. Sudras and women of 4 categories are not allowed for upanayana.
• Stauthasutra — Public rituals
• Suluva -Construction of fire altars (Sulva Sutra deals with the construction of fire altars and huge knowledge of geometry is dealt in detail).

Puranas

Puranas are 18 in number. These contain unbelievable mythological stories and huge historical knowledge. Purana speaks of the genealogy of ancient period kings.

• Vishnu Purana
• Padma Purana
• Matsya Purana
• Vayu Purana 

Upavedas

Upavedas are 4 in number.

• Ayurveda = Knowledge of life (Ayu = Life)
• Ghandarvaveda = Music
• Shilpaveda = Architecture
• Dhanurveda = Archery

Ithihasas

Epics are 2 in number

• Ramayana
• Mahabharata (Bhagavad-Gita is an appendix to Mahabharata)

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Economic System in Indus valley civilization

7. Economic System in Indus valley civilization

Economic System:

• Agrarian (Agricultural) Economy.
• These people got two crop seasons Rabi and Kharif In Rabi, Wheat, and Barley (Mostly food grains, the staple food) were produced and in Kharif Cotton, Mustard and others were produced. There are certain controversies in historians.

               - Rice available is either grown or flew?

               - Did they use plough?

               - Domestication of the horse?

       But recent excavations prove that all the three existed and they all existed but                 used only to very limitation.

• Only two cities were rice grain was found

                - Lothal, Gujarat (Rice grain was found)

                - Rangapur, Gujarat (Rice-husk was found)

• At every site a digging hoe was found but not plough; only at two sites plough was found.

               - Kali Bangal, Rajasthan (Furrows were discovered — a filed which is ploughed).

               - Banvali, Haryana (Banks of River Saraswati) (A terracotta / burnt clay replica of the plough was found).

• The horse was known to Indus people but it is domesticated on a limited basis.

               - Lothal, Gujarat ( A terracotta replica was found)

               - Surkotada, Gujarat ( Skeletal/original remains were found)

Industries:

• Textile industries both cotton & wool (At every site)
• Shipbuilding industries at Lothal.
• Jewellery/Ornaments [Indus Valley Civilization made jewellery largely using beads and shells]

              - Lothal, Gujarat

              - Chanhudaro

              - Dholavira (Beads of goldware found of very small size)

• Brick Industry
• Carpentry Industries
• Copper & Bronze Industries

Trade and Commerce:

• Indus Valley Civilization has both internal & international trade. The mode of transportation for internal trade was bullock cart and river boats majorly. International trade was regular with Mesopotamians. It is sea-borne trade and Lothal played an important role.
• Large no of seals were found in Mesopotamian civilizations and vice-versa. Mesopotamians used cylindrical seals.

              - 3 cylindrical seals were found at Mohenjodaro belonging to Mesopotamians.

              - The script used by Mesopotamians called as cuneiform.

              - An inscription dated 2200 BC was found and deciphered. It says Sindan (cotton) was imported from Meluha (India).

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/vedic-aryan-civilization-1500-bc-600-bc.html

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Public administration and Religious aspects in Indus Valley Civilization

Public administration and Religious aspects in Indus Valley Civilization

Public administration:

• There is no evidence and a dearth of material. D. D.Kaushambi hypothecated saying — Priests were rulers in Indus Valley Civilization. R.S.Sharma denies this hypothesis and postulated merchants were rulers in Indus Valley Civilization. 
• The administration was highly centralized, (Based on kind of city Planning, Sanitation etc.,) very powerful too. Bricks found were in the ratio of 4:2:1 standard / uniform that can conclude that administration was highly centralized.
• Uniform weights and measures were used (16 as the basic unit).

 Town-Planning:

• Uniformity in the plan, all cities have the same plan. Every city is divided into two parts i) Upper City (Western) ii) Lower City (Eastern). Upper City is called citadel and is protected by a fortified wall. Aristocrats used to live in the citadel. Lower City is for normal beings.
• Chanhudaro is a city without citadel.
• Dholovira is divided/ demarcated into three parts as Upper City, Middle City, and Lower City.
• All the cities were built in a grid pattern. Roads are built in a straight line without curves. Parallel roads run from N-S & E-W. Roads intersect exactly at 90 degrees and each block is of equal size.
• Banvali, Haryana where the grid pattern was not found. Roads are in a zig-zag manner.
• Good underground drainage system even with manholes. Banavali is an exception.

Society:

• Two important components of society were Stratification and Women.
• A matriarchal society is a hypothesis developed by John Marshall based on scanty evidence of Indus Valley Civilization.
• Indus Valley Civilization pantheon consists of both male & female deities. These people also worshiped bull (Agrarian Economy is the reason).

Religious:

• Indus Valley Civilization pantheon consists of
• Mother Goddess (Female deity - Prominently worshiped. Terracotta figurines of the goddess were found at every site).
• Pashupati Mahadeva (A seal found at Mohenjodaro depicts this god; Multi-headed god; only at one site this was found). In the course of time scholars identified this god as Lord Shiva.

• Linga (Phullic) - Stone Phullic were found at Mohenjodaro.
• Bull Worship
• Snake worship
• Tree worship
• A large number of amulets were found. This indicates the existence of demophobia, people believed in superstitious beliefs.
• Rituals - Animal sacrifice.
• Live after death - they believed (large no of grave goods along with skeleton was found. throughout the sites).

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/economic-system-in-indus-valley-civilization.html

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Indus Valley Civilization (2500-1500)

Indus-Valley Civilization (2500 BC - 1500 BC) 

• Sir John Marshall, appointed as director-general in 1920, was instrumental in identifying the ancient Indus Valley Civilization with the help of his deputies Daya Ram Sahni and R.D. Banerjee. 
• This civilization prospered in and around of Indus River. and its tributaries
• So far 1400 sites were excavated belonging to Indus Valley Civilization: 80 % of the sites found were outside the Indus valley, so the naming of culture is bit issue among the scholars. So traditionally. .this site is being known as Indus valley civilization but Scholars also name it variously. Harappa was the first site (type site) found in 1921. So this civilization is also known as Harappan Civilization. Also known as Bronze Age Civilization, cause bronze was first time used by Indus Valley people in India, Copper - mixed tin is called bronze.
• Protohistoric civilization: Though we have the available script it is not yet deciphered so this age does not come in historic neither prehistoric so a new transitional age was created by scholars and inserted this age into it called protohistoric. Paleographers failed to decipher the scripts because of the two reasons. No alphabets only pictures (pictographic), ideas were expressed in the form of pictures. Scripts were found on very seals which were very small in size and the pictographs were also limited to them (more than 4000 seals were excavated made of Steatite). Seals were rectangular or square not more than one centimeter or 1/2cm. This script is boustrophedon.
• Contemporary civilizations to Indus valley civilization outside India were

- Sumerian / Mesopotamian Civilization (Daob - Tigris River & Euphrates River). The script used by this people is known as cuneiform.

- Egyptian Civilization (At Nile River & its tributaries). The Script used by this people is known as hieroglyphic.

- Chinese Civilization (At Hwangho River Valley)

• Contemporary cultures of Indus valley civilization in India were

- Neolithic cultures of Kashmir and South India

- Aahar culture (chalcolithic culture)

- OCP culture of Indo Gangatic basin (Chalcolithic culture)

• Though these cultures had good trade and commerce relations with Indus valley people they did not adopt each other's culture. They were independent but at the same time, interdependent. This explains a lack of plasticity of mind and non-adoptability nature of the people. 
• There is no accurate information on beginning and termination of the civilization. So there is no consensus among the scholars regarding dating this civilization. VarioUs scholars proposed various dates like 'John Marshal' hypothetically dated this civilization belonging to the period of 3250 BC - 2750 BC. Later 'Martimum Wheeler' (DG in the year 1940) dated this between 2500 BC - 1500 BC initially and later corrected it to 1750 BC. Fair Service in his book called Prehistoric India dates this civilization to period between 2000 BC - 1500 BC. 'Dr. Agarwal' on the basis of C14 method confirms as 2300 BC - 1750 BC. So generally, this civilization is expected to flourish between 2500 BC - 1500 BC.
• As per the geographical extent is a concern this civilization is considered to be largest and biggest than any civilization in the world. The total area is 13000000 Sq. Km roughly. This is greater than present Pakistan. It is 20 times bigger than contemporary Egyptian civilization, 12 times bigger than combined are of Egyptian and Sumerian civilization. Its boundaries as of today are 

- Northern- farthest site found was at Manda (Chenab River,Tributary of Indus),J & K.

- Southern -- farthest site found was at Daimabad, Maharashtra, Pravara River (Tributary of Godavari). At Daimabad initially Indus civilization flourished than later chalcolithic cultures prospered. It means initially it experienced urbanization and later low culture.

- Eastern - farthest site found was at Alamgipur, UP, Hindon River (Tributary of Yamuna).

- Western — farthest site found was at Sutkejandaro, Pakistan, at the borders of Afghanistan-Iran (Afghan-Iranian Border).

• Indus Valley Civilization is a cosmopolitan culture, heterogeneous practices and cultures. 
• Four races have built this Indus Valley Civilization & identified as Mongoloids, Proto-Austrolids, Alpinoids, Meditterian (Dravidians). Meditterian were major contributors. This is a racial term, whereas a Dravidian is a linguistic term. 
• More than 300-400 cities have been excavated, so far. 

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/public-administration-and-religious.html

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Prehistoric Cultures - Chalcolithic Age

Prehistoric Cultures - Chalcolithic Age (3000 - 700BC)

• Last stage of prehistoric age. In India, this age is seen between 3000 BC - 700 BC. Though some areas in India are still in neolithic age some areas have surpassed it and entered into chalcolithic age. First metal used by human beings was Copper (3000 BC) then Bronze (2500 BC) and later Iron (1000 BC).
• Chalcolithic cultures were classified based on transition from use of stone tools to metal tools as 

1. Pre-Harappan
2. Contemporary to Harappan
3. Post-Harappan

• In India, many chalcolithic-Cultures were found in different parts. Like In Rajasthan - A Sothi culture was developed circa 3000 BC - Pre-Harappan. Some sites of this culture were found t Aahar (2100 - 1500 BC), Gulind, and Tambavathi. At Gulind houses were built with burnt bricks.
• In Malwa region around 1700 BC - 1200 BC - Contemporary to Harappan. Some sites of this culture were found at Kayatam, Navadatoli, and Eran, Maheshwar, Nagda. Copper Bangles, Necklaces of precious stones and food grains are found here.
• In Indo-Gangatic basin - OCP(Ochre colored pottery) culture was developed around 2000 BC -1500 BC Contemporary to Harappan. Some sites of this culture were found at Hastinapur, Nasirpur(UP), Gungeria (MP). At Gangeria 424 copper tools and 102 Thin Silver Sheets were found.
• In Maharastra - Jorwe culture was developed around 1400 - 700 BC - Post-Harappan. More than 200 sites were found of this culture. Some sites of Jorwe Culture were found at - Nevasa, Chandoli, Inamgaon, Dainiabad(Biggest site). All sites are in Ahmednagar(Dist).
• No chalcolithic site was found in South India.
• Both Agrarian and pastoral practices were taken and it is a mixed economy. Large scale domestication and rearing of animals were carried out. Unfortunately though large herds of cattle were there but the dairy technology was absent.
• Milk wasn't used in day to day life. This led to high rate of infant deaths. This phenomenon of infant mortality was evident from a large heap of infant skeletons found a Daimabad.
• Shifting cultivation was practiced entirely. Wheat, rice,bajra, pulses and moreover fruits and vegetables were also cultivated.
• Both sophisticated stone tools and copper tools were used. Village settlements have grown large in size. At Daimabad, it was estimated that 4000 people lived there. Writing skills weren't developed though some contemporary civilizations (with which these had good commercial contacts) have scripted. It can be said that most chalcolithic cultures were post-Harappan in chronology but pre-Harappan in technology.
• Sophisticated pottery was in use. Painting of pottery was started at this age. At various chalcolithic sites, large numbers of grave goods were found indicating these people continued the beliefs of their ancestors in life after death. Moreover, fire altars were found indicating the performance of rituals. Ling worship was noticed at various places. Skeletons exhumed at Daimabad have no foot. they have been chopped before burying this indicates people fear of died turning into scripts(phasmophobia).

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Prehistoric Cultures - Neolithic Age

Prehistoric Cultures - Neolithic Age

7000 - 1000 BC onwards); (Neo — New)

• The main feature of neolithic age is man moved from food hunting to food production. A British archeologist 'Gordon Childe' describes this age as food producing self sufficient economy.

• Scholars calculated or divided this age based on the agriculture and domestication. The period in which both these activities were in full-fledged manner scholars observed that period as neolithic period and this is not uniform in all areas. In different areas at the different time, this period has started.

• In the North West regions of India, neolithic features were found in 7000 BC and in Assam region these features found during 1000 BC (Indus valley civilization ended and Aryan started by this time).

• There is no dearth of neolithic sites in India. First Neolithic site in Indian sub-continent is Mehrgarh, Pakistan dated 7000 BC - First agricultural practice took place in India and first to grow Wheat and Barley in Indian sub-continent. Grapes were also grown by them. Pottery wheel was first found in India at Mehrgarh, it means people of Mehrgarh were first to make wheel pottery in India. People of this place were first in World to grow Cotton(5000BC).

• Another Site Koldihwa, Belan valley, updated 5000 BC - First people in the world to grow Paddy. Both sown and wild varieties were excavated at this site by the archeologists. 

• The third site Burzahom Kashmir (near Srinagar) dated 2500 BC. These people constructed houses in pit-dwelling. There is connectivity between each house through- a tunnel. All staircases, walls are plastered with mud. People of this place have good commercial relations with people of Indus valley civilization. Pottery was being imported by these and timber was exported to Indus valley. Though having such relations people of Burzahom didn't adopt the culture of Indus valley which is very advanced.

• Chirand, Bihar (near Patna) dated 1600 BC. Apart from stone tools, a large number of bone tools was excavated here. This includes a bone needle which indicates some sort of stitching activity was being carried out here.

• South Indian Neolithic sites were circa 2000 BC. Sites found at various places like                            - In Andhra Pradesh - Nagarjunakonda, Utnur (Mahabobnagar district)                                        - InTamilnadu - Piyampalli                                                                                                              - In Karnataka - Maski(Raichur region), Brahinagiri, Piklihal, Kodekal, Tekkelakota.

• In Tekkelakota excavations apart from stone tools, some gold pieces were also found. These people export gold to Indus valley people and had good commercial relations with them.

• Neolithic sites of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh archeologists excavated 'Ash mounds'. Huge heaps of cow dung was burned once in awhile which resulted in these ash mounds. This indicates domestication was carried on a full scale in these areas. Sites were ash mound found were Piklihai, Kupgal, Kodekal all three belonging to Karnataka region and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.

• Neolithic people of South India majorly grown horse gram and ragi.

• In North Eastern states neolithic age started only after 1000 BC. This is major due to climatic and geographical conditions of this area. Thick forests and continuous rains in this area are not conducive for cultivation. Some neolithic sites were found in Garo hills they were Meharland and Daojali Hading.

• An important and prominent feature of Neolithic age is it was a mixed economy. Both agrarian and pastoral practices were carried out in a supplement to each other rather than substitutes. In North India cereals like Wheat, Barley and rice were grown and in South India ragi and Horse gram was grown.

•  Cultivation practiced by them is known as shifting cultivation or slash and burn cultivation. As the man was able to produce enough food for his sustenance he abandoned  nomadic life and started sedentary life. Village communities have started. He began to experience social life and societies were slowly growing up. Eventually, in this process disputes have started which led to the emergence of some sort of leadership to redress the clashes, Lands doesn't belong to individual they were looked after/ held by a community whereas cattle belong individuals. Scholars consider this  period  of primitive communism.

• Tool making technology has undergone a revolutionary change. Though tools they were made out of stone. Some sort of religious beliefs were among the people. 

• At various neolithic, sites large number of grave goods were found indicating these people  believed in life after death. At few places, Terracotta serpents and Mother Goddess  figurines were found indicating their worship of snakes and goddess.

• Scholars consider all these changes as revolutionary changes and this period itself revolutionary period.

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/03/prehistoric-cultures-chalcolithic-age.html

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Prehistoric Cultures - Mesolithic Age

Prehistoric Cultures - Mesolithic Age

1000 BC - 4000 BC (roughly); (Meso - Middle)

• The second stage of Stone Age. The emergence of Homo sapiens. There is no dearth of sites in India belonging to Mesolithic age. Important Mesolithic sites are 

·         Birbanpur, Damodar valley, West Bengal.

·         Langhnag, Sabarmati valley, Gujarat

·         Adarrigarh, Madhya Pradesh

·         Bhiribetka, Madhya Pradesh

·         Bagor, Rajasthan

·         Chopanirnando, Belan valley, Uttar Pradesh

·         Sarai Nahar Rai, Belau valley, Uttar Pradesh

·         Nagarjuna Konda, Andhra Pradesh

·         Jalalahalli, Karnataka(near Bangalore)

·         Mayorbanch, Orissa

• End of Pleistocene Age and beginning of next geographical age called Holocene Age. Global warming started and the temperature of earth began to rise melting the ice blankets thus forming rivers and seas. So humans Were not forced to endure extreme hostile conditions and he was not left to the mercy of nature.

• Climate has become conducive to the growth of flora and fauna resources. He was living a semi-nomadic life. Evolution of human beings into full-fledged homo sapiens occurred during this stage. During the later phase of this period, human started to domesticate various animals. Domestication was, not done in full scale and done at only a few places.

Related Posts:     http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/03/neolithic-age.html

• Moreover, this was not substituted for hunting but only, a supplementary. Hunting was still a primary source of food. Pottery was invented and this brought a revolution inhabitation methods. He started to live in artificially constructed houses.

• Tools used by these people are known as microliths (1 cm - 8 cm) or pigmy tools. Tools making, tradition has changed and new technology has evolved. Tools were made of small stones instead of heavy stones, unlike his ancestors. These tools were hafted into a wooden stick and used as spears etc.

• Hand-made pottery was found at Chopanimando, these people were first to use pottery in the world.

• Prehistoric art was found at Blaimbetka. This place is a World Heritage Centre, UNESCO.

• Skeletons of animals were found at Azamgarh and Bagor. People of this place were considered as first people to domesticate in India.

• Evidence of earliest built houses in India was reported from Sarai Nahar Rai.

• Skeletons found at various sites have marks and scratches caused by microlith attack. This suggests that during this period there exists some sort of intergroup conflicts. General hypothesis may be for cattle-lifting, fishing, grounds etc. 

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