Ancient Buddhism

Ancient Buddhism

Gautama buddha history

Mahatma Buddha is a humanist, who believes society/person is a greater than the God. Worship of man, worship of poor is important than worshipping of God. He was an Atheist. Gurunanak & Vivekananda are also humanists.

Introduction to Buddhism

• Life of Buddha - As per Buddhist texts 566-486 BC.
• Mahatma Buddha was born in Kshatriyas and he is a Sakya.
• His father Shuddodana and ruler of small Himalayan Kingdom of Kapilavasthu.
• His mother's name is Mahamaya, and she gave birth to Siddhartha (Initial name of Buddha) at Lumbini now in Nepal.
• Lotus - Symbolises the birth of Buddha.
• His wife's name is Yashodhara and son is Rahul.
• Mahabhinishkrama is a going ceremony or Great Departure and Horse became his symbol.
• At an age of 35, Siddhartha became Buddha - Tathagatha. He got enlightened and became Tathagatha. He then got in meditation.
• Sambodhi - Enlightenment of Buddha, Gaya (place) - Bodhi (Pipal Tree - Symbol).
• Sermon - A religious lecture is called a sermon.
• The first sermon of Buddha is called as Dharma chakra Parivartana and first sermon was given at Sarnath.
• Dharma chakra Parivartana - Sarnath, Kashi

                 --> A wheel with 8 spokes, this indicated Astangamarga.
                 --> Vishnu Chakra — Spokes
                 --> Ashoka Chakra — 24 Spokes

• Kusinara/Kusi(UP) - Death place of Buddha.
• Mahaparinirvana - Kusi Stupa (symbol).
• The stupa is a sacred structure which is built on the relics of Buddha. The stupa is a semi-domical solid structure made of bricks. Buddhist calls this as 'Anda' Prakara and 'Torana' are outer structures and 'Pradakshinapata' and 'Anda' are inner parts. Sanctum Sanctorum is not present in Stupa. Circumambulation is allowed. The stupa is the latest Buddhist religious monument and was originally only a simple mound of mud or clay to cover supposed relics of the Buddha (cetiya). After the Parinirvana of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under eight stupas with two further stupas encasing the urn and the embers. Little is known about these early stupas, particularly since it has not been possible to identify the original ten monuments.

Symbolism

"The shape of the stupa represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His crown is the top of the spire, his head is the square at the spire's base, his body is the vase shape, his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace, and the base is his throne".

Five purified elements

Although not described in any Tibetan text on stupa symbolism, the stupa may represent the five ,Purified elements:

          --> The square base represents earth.

          --> The hemispherical dome/vase represents water

          --> The conical spire represents fire

          --> The upper lotus parasol and the crescent moon represents air

          --> The sun and the dissolving point represents the element of space

• There are two reasons stupas were built after the historical Buddha Sakyamuni died

            --> To commemorate eight great deeds accomplished during his life

            --> To enshrine relics after he passed away

            --> The Eight Great Deeds

1. Birth: Built at Lumbini
2. Enlightenment: Built in the kingdom of Magadha, on the banks of the river Nairanjana
3. Turning to the Wheel, the first teaching: Built at Sarnath (Varanasi)
4. Miracles: Built at Sravasti
5. Descent from Tushita: Built at Samkashya after Buddha returned from Tushita heaven, where he'd gone to give teachings to his mother
6. Reconciliation: Built at Rajagriha, after Buddha reconciled the disagreements of the monks
7. Complete Victory: Built at Vaishali, where Buddha meditated extensively.
8. Parinirvana: Built at Kushinagara, where Buddha entered Mahaparinirvana.

• Different kinds of Buddhist Monuments were

            --> Stupa - Monument of the Mahatma Buddha
            --> Chaitya - A prayer hall of the Monks and nuns
            --> Vihara/Arama -the residences of monks & nuns.

Doctrines of Buddhism

• Four Noble truths - As universal truths

1. Dukha - The world is full of sorrows
2. Desires - Dukha is caused by human desires
3. Nirodha - It can be prevented
4. Marga - There is a way to come out of Dukha

Teachings of Buddha(Gautama buddha teachings)

• Astangamarga - Eightfold path (Central theme of Buddhism)

1. Right Speech - Always speak well
2. Right Action - Do Good
3. Right Vision
4. Right Aim - Aim must be good & positive
5. Right Effort
6. Right livelihood - be Honest
7. Right Awareness
8. Right meditation - That gives peace

• The middle path - Avoid the extremes of anything
• Pratitya Samutpada - that refers to the causal relations between the psychophysical phenomena that sustain dukkha (dissatisfaction) in worldly experience
• God & Mahatma Buddha - Scholars described Buddha as Agnostic - who neither accepts nor rejects the God. No comments on God. Mostly, Atheism.

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Conquest of Sindh - Punjab - Doctrine of Lapse

Sindh Conquest

• Hyderabad, Pakistan was the capital.
• Sher Mohammed was king during British annexation in 1843. He was already a signatory of Subsidiary Alliance and loyal to its provisions but due to its economical aspects and other features British have conquered it using the subsidiary forces that are supposed to protect. This was an act of gross misuse of the subsidiary alliance.
• Annexation of Bengal, Mysore and Maratha were given justification. But annexation of Sindh was a naked example of British imperialism and there was universal condemnation of this act.
• Charles Napier was the resident of who was a good friend of Sher Mohammad. On orders of the then Governor General Ellen Borough he has to conquer the territory using the forces against his friend. He describes this act as treachery. Later he wrote a letter to Ellen Borough in a very diplomatic way saying 'I have Sindh', which gives two meaning that he has conquered Sindh and he has 'sin'.

Punjab Conquest 

• During disintegration of Mughal Empire, 12 small Sikh kingdoms emerged in Punjab which was known as Misel and the rulers were called 'Miseldars'.

Maharaja Ranjit Singh

• Miseldar of Sukherchekia who little later took a title Maharaja who ruled from 1792 to 1839.
• He conquered all other Misels and created a huge Sikh state with Lahore as capital.
• He was a very good administrator and possessed a huge army which is 2nd most powerful after British.
• He donated gold to 'Harmandir Sahiba' and got it plated with gold, since then it is known as 'Golden Temple'.
• He was a man of religious tolerance.

           -->His Foreign Minister was Azeez-ud-din, a Muslim
           -->His Prime Minister was Pandit Dinanath, a Brahman
           -->His Governor of Peshawar was Avitabile, an Italian

• He has maintained the cordial relationship with British so there were no revolts against him. His relations were not only political but also personal relations.
• In less than 10 years after his death, Sikh state was annexed by British.
• After his death in 1839 his minor son 'Dalip Singh' came to power and defacto authority was his mother 'Jindan'. During this period two wars were fought between Sikhs and British knew Anglo-Sikh wars.

First Anglo-Sikh War 

• In this war the Governor General Hardinze I fought against Sikh forces in which Sikhs were defeated.
• This war concluded with a truce 'Treaty of Lahore'.

Second Anglo-Sikh War

• In this war, the then Governor General Dalhousie defeated Sikh forces and annexed Sikh state.
• Dalip Singh and his mother Jindan were sent to London as pensioners. Later this family settled in London and descendants of Ranjit Singh are still seen in London.
• This was the last war fought by British in India this means Punjab was the last kingdom to be conquered by means of war. This doesn't put an end to the conquest of British but only means changed. Hereafter they annexed Indian territories through diplomatic ways. By this time British became so powerful and Indian Kings who were not so powerful were not in a position to offer resistance so they simply bent down for British.

Doctrine of Lapse

• Dalhousie an imperialist developed an imperial scheme to annexe diplomatically called '
• The doctrine of Lapse'.On this pretext, territories were annexed.
• This says, if there was no any natural born heir to the throne (Born to King and Queen, not adapted) then British were empowered to annexe such state. Few kingdoms which were annexed on this pretext were annexed

            -->1848 - Satara, MP

            -->1849 — Sambhalpur (Orrisa), Jaipur (Bundelkhand)

            -->1850 Bhagat (Punjab)

            -->1852 — Udaipur (Rajasthan)

           -->1863 —Jhansi (MP) - widow Jashi Lakshmi Bhai adopted a son as her successor.

           -->1854 —Nagpur (Maharastra)

• In 1856 Dalhousie wanted to annex 'Avad state' but the then King 'Wajid Ali Shah', a very old man and has a natural born legal heir. So Dalhousie who wanted Avad badly at any cost developed another scheme called 'Mis-Governance'. On the pretext of Mis-governance, the king was dethroned and territory was annexed. Deposed king was sent to Calcutta as a pensioner but soon king died heart Sobbing.

This was the last kingdom to be conquered by British in India by any means with this British conquest In India came to an end.

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advent of islam in history

 Islam

• According to historians, Islam was found in 6th -7th C AD.
• Prophet Mohammed was the founder of this religion. He was born in Mecca in 571 AD and then he founded this religion there. He died in Medina in 632 AD. The spread of Islam started from Medina. 
• Islam was a revolting religion born out of huge instability and agitation prevailing during those times in Saudi Arabia. Various tribes were living in the various uncivilised way. Polytheism and huge idolatry were in practice.
• Islam is a missionary religion.
• The literary meaning of Islam means surrender similar to that of Bhakti in Hinduism.
• Islam was founded on the basis of five principles/ Doctrines. The Pillars of Islam (arkan al-Islam; also arkan ad-din, "pillars of religion") are five basic acts in Islam, considered obligatory for all believers.
• The Quran presents them as a framework for worship and a sign of commitment to the faith. They are (1) the shahadah (creed) or Kalima (kalma), (2) daily prayers (salat) or Namaz, (3) Roza or sawn, fasting during Ramadan and (4) almsgiving (zakah), (5) the pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj) at least once in a lifetime.
• The Shahadah or Kalima which is the basic creed of Islam that must be recited under oath with the specific statement: "ashadu al-la ilaha illla llahu wa aghadu anna muhammadan rasalu-llah", or "I testify that there is none worthy of worship except God and I testify that Muhammad is the Messenger of God". This testament is a foundation for all other beliefs and practices in Islam. Muslims must repeat the shahadah in prayer, and non-Muslims wishing to convert to Islam are required to recite the creed.
• Whoever has faith in Kalima are called believers or faithful and Arabic term for the faithful is  'Muslim'. Whoever doesn't believe are non-believers and Arabic term for them was 'Kafir'.
• Sahib or Namaz or ritual prayer, which must be performed five times a day.
• Sawn or Roza or fasting during the month of Ramadan. Muslims must not eat or drink (among other things) from dawn to dusk during this month, and must be mindful of other sins.
• Zakat or aimsgiving, which is giving a fixed portion of accumulated wealth by those who can afford it to help the poor or needy, and also assist the spread of Islam.
• The Hajj, which is the pilgrimage during the Islamic month of Dhu al-Hijjah in the city of Mecca. Every able-bodied Muslim who can afford it must make the pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in his or her lifetime.
• Prophet was hated initially by Meccaist. He was described as 'Majnu' (mad). There was a serious revolt against him. 
• During this revolt, in the year 622 AD - Prophet has migrated from Mecca to Madina and this process of migration is known as 'Hijra' (Hijra in Arabic means migration).
• People of Madina welcomed him and liked his preachings and took the Islam religion thereafter. Eventually, people started converting to Islam and Madina has become the place from where the spread of Islam started. By Sword spread of Islam started.
• In the year 630, Mecca was captured and all the idols in Kabah were destroyed and thereafter this has become a holy place for Islamites.
• Prophet became the spiritual and political head for a small domain and ruled with Mecca as the capital city. After his death in 632 AD, a serious issue of succession started as he doesn't have any male child except a female child.
• As per Sharia, an administrative law for Islamites - it says female cannot be a Calipha (an Arabic term for successor). 
• Two were the aspirants for being Caliphas. They were

                  1) Mohammed Ali - A great warrior and Son-in-law of Prophet 
                  2) Abu Bakar — A staunch follower and a senior person.

• Md Ali supporters were small in number a Minority number, whereas Abu Bakar has large group followers. So Abu Bakar has become Calipha. But this didn't digest for Md Ali's followers so they refused Abu Bakar. Thereafter this minority number came to known as Shias. And the majority numbers of Abu Bakar were known as Sunnis. This is the start of Schism in Islam.
• Shias give the status of Prophet to Mohammed Ali whereas Sunnis just consider him as a son-in-law. In the course of time, these two communities started hating each other and serious revolt and agitation started in them which led for many blood baths and carnages between them. (Recently Saddam Hussain a Sunni, who massacred Shias and issued policies and laws against Shias).
• Throughout the world, Shias are in the minority. Only 3% of Shias and 97% of Sunnis. In India majority of are in Hyderabad and Lucknow (as these two places were ruled by Shia rulers). These Shias in India are called as Iranians as they have come from Iran. Iran is only a country in the world with 100% Shias. Then comes Iraq with 60% Shias followed by 40% Sunnis.

Calipha

• Calipha is the political and spiritual head of the Islam domain. As per Sharia, there shall be only one spiritual and political head.
• In expanding the territory of Islam by conquering and converting, there never had a problem with the spiritual head but the political administration has become a problem. Islam was expanding in leaps and bounds. All Buddhist, Zoroastrians, Jains, Christian territories being conquered & converted by word or sword. 
• Islamic priestly class Ulema considers themselves as custodians of Sharia. The administration should be in accordance with Sharia and there should not be any deviation or blasphemy. These Ulema(s) have the Dower to issue Fatwa.
• Sultans of India ruled in the name of Calipha. They called themselves as representatives of Calipha. Coins were issued in his name to show the sovereignty of Calipha.
• Qutba — A special prayer on Friday. A chief priest read out the prayer in the name of Calipha.
• Sultans of India were sending periodical gifts for requesting or asking Calipha to admit them as subordinates.
• If Calipha was happy he would send a letter of acceptance called Mansoor.Indian rulers were struggling to get Mansoor. Only 3 rulers of India got the Mansoor. 

1. Iltutmish(Read as Altamash) 
2. Mohammed-bin-Tughlaq 
3. Feroz shah Tughlaq (He got Mansoor twice from two different Calipha(s)). 

• Even today Qutba is read in the name of first four Caliphas.

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Pre Mauryan Age

Pre-Mauryan Age (600 BC - 300 BC)

This age can be termed as Pre- Mauryan Age / Age of Buddha / Age of  "Shodasa Maha Janapadas" (Shodasa - 16, Maha - Great, Janapadas - Kingdoms).

Political System 

•  Anguttara Nikaya — A Buddhist text of this age contains a list of 16 kingdoms. 

1. Magadha - 1st Rajagruha (Rajgeer — Bihar), later Pataliputra (Patna)
2. Anga - Champa (Bihar)
3. Vajji or Lichachavi - Vaishali (Bihar)
4. Kashi - Varanasi ( UP)
5. Kasala - Shravashi (UP)
6. Vatsa Kaushambi (Kasam close to Allahabad)
7. Kuru 1st Hastinapur (Meerut, UP) and 2nd Indraprastha (Delhi)
8. Sourasena Mathura (UP)
9. Panchala Ahichachatra (UP)
10. Malla 1st Kusi (UP) and 2nd Pava (Bihar)
11. Matsya Vir a tnagar (Rajsathan — Jaipur)
12. Chedi Suktimati (MP)
13. Avanti Ujjain (MP)
14. Garighadhara Thakshashila(Rawalpindi — Pakistan)
15. Ka mboja Rajapura (Mujapurabad — Pakistan)
16. Asmaka Podana (Bodan —AP) 

• 600 BC - 350 BC - Amongst the sixteen Mahajanapadas, Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked with the reign of Asoka Maurya, one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. Reasons may be like

          -->Geographical
          -->Human factors - Most powerful Kings are present in Magadha

• According to the Puranas, the Magadha Empire was established by the Brihadratha Dynasty, who was the 'sixth in line from Emperor Kuru of the Bharata dynasty through his eldest son Sudhanush. The first prominent Emperor of the Magadhan branch of Bharathas was Emperor Brihadratha. His son Jarasandha appears in popular legend and is slain by Bhima in the Mahabharata. Vayu Purana mentions that the Brihadrathas ruled for 1000 years.

• The Brihadrathas were succeeded by the Pradyotas who according to the Vayu Purana ruled for 138 years. One of the Pradyota traditions was for the prince to kill his father to become king. During this, it is reported that there were high crimes in Magadha. The people rose up and elected Haryanka to become the new king, which destroyed the power of the Pradyotas and created the Haryanka dynasty: Due in part to this bloody dynastic feuding, it is thought that a civil revolt led to the emergence of the Haryanka-dynasty. 

• Sanskrit Language - Language of great intellectuals of ancient India (Brahman) not for common man. 

• There are two more languages used by common people in ancient India.

1. Pali - Buddha adopted Pali so it became Buddhist language
2. Prakrit - Became the language of Jains
3. But both the languages disappeared later on 

• Prakrit has various dialects

1. Magadhi - All Ashokan inscriptions
2. Artha Magadha - All Jain inscriptions and literature
3. Maharastri - Sathavahana literature
4. Paisachi

• Magadha was ruled by 3 different dynasties

1. Haryanka (name of the family)
2. Sisunaga
3. Nanda

Kings of Haryanka 

• According to tradition, the Haryanka dynasty founded the Magadha Empire in 684 BC, whose capital was later Pataliputra, near the present day Patna.
• Bimbisara - 1st King of Magadha and founder of Haryanka. He conquered Anga and Kasi Kingdoms. He married Princess Kasala Mahadevi. He got the Kasi Kingdom as dowry from Kasala.
• Ajatasatru - Son of Binibisara - 2nd king of Magadha. He is a patricide. He came to power by killing his father. He conquered Kasala, Vajji and Malla Kingdoms.
• Udayana/Udayabhadra - 3rd King of Magadha - Son of Ajatasatru. He was the weak king so Udayana was killed by his Senapati 'Sisunaga'. Then Magadha kingdom was closed and Sisunaga came to power.

Kings of Sisunaga 

• Sisunaga 1st King and founder. He conquered Avanthi.
• Kalashoka - He is the son of Sisunaga. He was the 2nd and last king of this dynasty. Mahapadma Nanda killed Kalashoka and came to power establishing Nanda Kingdom (350 BC).

Kings of Nanda

• Mahapadmananda - He conquered all the Janapadas left over including the Asmaka Kingdom. Up to Godavari basin, he conquered and he was the 1st king to conquer the South India. He is considered as the Greatest of Magadha. The first Sudra King of India - Mahapadmananda. Jain by religion. He conquered all the kingdoms except two kingdoms of North-West of India.
• Gandhara and Kamboja Kingdoms - Nanda Kings didn't touch these kingdoms. Even Haryanka & Sisunaga kingdoms also didn't.
• Dhanananda — Son of Mahapadma Nanda. He was defeated and the power had been captured by Chandragupta Maurya (321 BC). Thereafter Mauryans came into power.

History of Gandara & Kamboja Kingdoms

• Around 600 BC — Iranians/Persians were very powerful emperors in the world. These kingdoms are in the Iranians province.
• Cyrus — 1st foreign conqueror of India.
• Darius I — (Cyrus grandson) then came to power.
• Persians used 'Hi' instead of 'Si' (Sindhu — Hindu). So is the name Hindustan.
• Two great empires in the world at this time were Macedonian (Greeks) and Iranian (Persia). There exists a lot of conflicts between both the kingdoms.
• 'Alexander' (334 BC) was the conqueror of the world for the first time. His teacher was Aristotle.
• Darius III (329 BC) was killed by Alexander and ends the Iranians.
•  Ambhi - King of Taxila (Thakshashila). He gave an invitation to Alexander. Rival of Ambhi is 'Porus'. Hence Alexander came to India
• 327BC - 325 BC — Alexander spent 19 months in India.
• 326 BC — Battle of Hydaspus (River Jhelum) with Porus. Porus was then defeated by Alexander and he conquered all the territories.
• When Alexander was in India, The contemporary Magadha king Dhanananda was in power.
• 323 BC — Alexander died at Babylonia (At the age of 33 or 34 ).
• Three Greek Empires were Ended after Alexander's death.

1. Europe — Macedonia(Headquarters)
2. Africa — Egypt (Headquarters)
3. Asia — Syria (Headquarters)

• Seleucid Empire was founded by military commander 'Seleucus Nicator' in Asia.

Economic System

• Metal coins - 1st coins of India started around 600 BC. Silver & Copper both sorts of metal coins used.
• Punch marked coins made up of silver/copper are used. Coins marked with a tree/hill/bird/sun/moon etc are punch marked coins. These coins are uninscribed.
• The growth of Guilds — Guild is an English word but Indian literature it is called 'Sreni' (Guilds are associations of merchants& Traders). Every guild works like a modern banking system. Few of them

1. Kalika Sreni (Weaver's Guild)
2. Pathika Sreni (Pattu - silk Guild)
3. Telika Sreni (Oil Maker Guild)
4. Kulala Sreni (Potters Guild)
5. Gandhika Sreni (Perfumer Guild) — (Mahatma Gandhi belong to this guild)

Religions of Pre- Mauryan Age 

• This period produced many great intellectuals.
• 62 philosophical movements, which were completely against with the rituals & Brahmanistic society. These movements are called 'Heterodox'. Heterodox - Means Unorthodox. Shreemana and Orthodox are Brahaminates. All those were against the Brahmanas called Shreemana.
• In 62 movements, 4 prime and fully fledged religions were

1. Buddhism
2. Jainism
3. Ajivika
4. Charvaka

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Maratha conquest

Maratha conquest

• Chatrapathi Sahu ruled Maratha from 1707 to 1749. During his reign, he was only a dejure King in actual power was really enjoyed by his de facto Prime Ministers. This peshwas made this position hereditary.

1. Balaji Vishwanath 1713 -1720
2. Bajirao I (Son and successor of Balaji) 1720 - 1740 
3. Nana Saheb (Moniker for Balaji BajiRao) 1740 -1761 

• Eventually, Chatrapathi died in 1749 childless i.e. no legal heir to the throne. So Peshwa of that period Nana Saheb ascended the throne and continued as dejure power. By this Shivaji, the family came to end. Alter assuming power Nana Saheb shifted capital from Satara to Pune.
• For fist fifty years of 18th Century Maratha's were very powerful and formidable empire but their administration, revenue, military policies which were defective eventually led to annexation by British of late.
• A blunder by Maratha's was during conquest and plundering they moved towards North-West in 1760-1761, where they attacked a town 'Attock' in Afghanistan. During this the King of Afghanistan was a powerful ruler 'Ahmed Shah Abdali' and governor of Attock was his son 'Timur Shah'. Maratha's expelled Timur Shah and looted Attock which aired Abdali so immediately in retaliation he declared war against Maratha's.

Third  Battle of Panipat

• This third battle of Panipat (1760-61)was  fought between Afghans and Maratha's where Marathas were out rightly defeated and this proved to a national disastrous to them. A historian Jatana Sarkar describes after effects of this war and loss very beautifully as

       ->  Two pearls dissolved, means two powerful commanders of Maratha army were killed and they were

1. Vishwasa Rao (Son of Nana Saheb) 
2. Sadashiva Rao (Cousin of Nana Saheb)

       ->  27 Gold Mohurs were lost; means 27 great leaders of Marathas belonging to different families were also killed. Few important families of Marathas were

1. Bhonsle Family -- In charge of Nagpur region
2. Sindiya Family -- In charge of Gwalior region
3. Holkar Family -- In charge of Indore region
4. Gaekwad Family --  In charge of Baroda region 

      ->  Count of silver and copper coins was uncountable. No family in entire Maratha kingdom that didn't mourn the loss of at least one person.

• Abdali scored a terrific victory teaching Marathas lesson. Nana Saheb after the war news died in the same year broken heart. After this Marathas gradually became less powerful and the task of British conquering become easy. A scholar says that the final fruits of this war were inadvertently enjoyed by British,  In the conquest of Maratha Kingdom British fought three wars called Anglo-Maratha wars.

First Anglo-Maratha War

• This war fought from 1775 to 1782 between then Governor General Warren Hastings and Peshwa Madhava Rao II.
• Though British were in the position of winning they concluded this war with a truce 'Treaty pf Salbe'. This is a status quo treaty. Hastings did so because during the war they were also fighting 2nd Anglo-Mysore war so no matter he didn't want Marathas to join Mysore which will be a disastrous and formidable threat to British. So by diplomatic means, he concluded war with a ceasefire.

Second  Anglo-Maratha War

• This war was fought from 1803 to 1805 between Governor General Lord Wellesley and last Peshwa BajiRao II. 
• In this War, Marathas were defeated completely however territory was not annexed but only a certain type of command was enforced. Many treaties were concluded between families and etc.

Third Anglo-Maratha War

• This war was fought from 1817 to 1818 between Governor General. Lord Hastings and Baji Rao II. This war is also called 'Pindari war' because British targeted Pindaris primarily.
• Pindaris were robbers and looters and ferocious warriors. These accompanied Marathas in various wars and more over loot the annexed villages. These people caused huge law and order problem.
• After this war, Peshwaish was terminated and Baji Rao II was sent to Kanpur as a pensioner.

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Southern Dynasties - Chola Dynasty

Southern Dynasties - Chola Dynasty

Cholas Dynasty (850 - 1175)

• They ruled with Tanjavore as capital.

Parantaka- I

• Important King was Parantaka-I He took the title called 'Madurai Konda'. His two inscription of Uttarameru, TN issued in 10th C says about the local self-governments.
• Village administration was completely autonomous. Village panchayats are called Sabhas or Ur. Extreme powers are given to these panchayats. Judicial powers are also given. These were highly democratic and for election 'Kundavali' is the system. adopted.

Raja Raja- I

• Apart from Indian domains and territories he also conquered territories outside India.He captured Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Northern Srilanka.
• His counterpart or the contemporary king Of Srilanka was 'Mahinda V'.He was defeated by Raja Raja - I and his capital Anuradhapura were captured and destroyed.
• Cholas called their provinces as Mandalams. Northern Srilanka that.was captured by Raja. Raja was called as `Mummadichola Mandalam'.Raja Raja has a title called 'Mummadichola Deva'.

Rajendra- I

• He was son and successor of Raja Raja- I.
• He defeated Pala kings and annexed Parts of Bengal and Bihar.
• He took the title of `Gangaikonda' (Gangai = Ganga).
• Thereafter he built a new city called Gangaikonda.Cholapuram in Tamilnadu.
• He also occupied Southern Srilanka and 'Mahinda-V' who was hiding there was brought as a prisoner to Tanjavore. Now complete Srilanka was called as Mummadichola Mandalam.
• He also invaded Indonesia and defeated its king. Then he took another title called 'kadaram Konda'. Kadaram (now Penang) was capital that dynasty.

Kuluttonga- I

• He ruled between 11-12th Century
• During his reign, he lost control over Srilanka. Cholas were expelled. The Sinhala hero 'Vijayabahu the Great' who vanquished Cholas from Sri Lanka made every possible effort to restore what Cholas destroyed.
• In 1077, Kuluttonga-I has sent a huge embassy to China to improve Trade and Commerce relationship. This embassy consists of 72 members.
• He has also very diplomatic relationships with Cambodian Kings. His contemporary Cambodian king was Suryavarina-II.
• During his reign, two social groups which were rivals to each have emerged. There emerged is unknown, though they are

      ->  Valangai — means Right hand in Tamil
      ->  ldangai — means Left Hander in Tamil

• After the decline of Chola, there emerged two kingdoms in South.

      ->  Pandyan kingdom with capital at Madurai, Tamilnadu.
      ->  Hovasala kingdom with capital at Dwarasamudra(Present Helebiedu = Deserted Village).

• During Cholas period, complete Eastern coast (Bengal to Tamilnadu) was under their control. This as called as Cholamandalam (and this was anglicised by Britishers as Coromandal.
• Cholas were so successful because their Navy power was immense. They were the master of navy administration.
• Cholas emblem was the tiger.

Literature

• A great poet of this period was Kamban (circa 12th C). He translated Ramayana into 'Tamil'.
• Another scholar Jayangondor he wrote 'Salingattu Parani' (Parani = conquest, Conquest of Kalinga). and this book is on Kuluttonga and his conquest of Kalinga.
• Another Scholar. Sekkilar - he wrote Periyapuranam(a book on Shaivism).

Architecture 

• Temples are considered the best of South India. All the temples are in Dravidian style.
• The credit of strengthening the Dravidian style goes to Cholas. They have perfected this style by adding few new features like 

1. Gopuram:- A Gopuram or Gopura is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple. They function 'as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex. A gopuram is usually rectangular in form with ground-level wooden doors, often richly decorated, providing access. Above is the tapering gopuram, divided into many storeys which diminish in size as the gopuram tower narrows. Usually, the tower is topped with a barrel vaulted roof with a finial. Gopurams are exquisitely decorated with sculpture and carvings and painted with a variety of themes.Cholas built Gopurams in four directions.
2. Mantapa: It is a pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals. In the Hindu temple, the mandapa is a porch like structure through the (gopuram) (ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music and is part of the basic temple compound. The prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapas. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with intricate carvings.This has become an integral part of temple architecture.
3. Vimana: A multi-storied structure over the sanctum sanctorum is called Vimana. This is also in semi-pyramidal shape.

 Few important temples

• Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavore otherwise called as Rajarajeshwara temple. This was built by Raja Raja Chola. This is UNESCO World Heritage Centre.Vimana of this temple is so impressive - it is 13 storyed and almost 196 ft. This is considered tallest temple in India till date. This was built in 1010, recently millennium anniversary celebrations were held. Brihadeshwara Tupula weighs about 80 tonne (Tupula - A monolithic stone/ device kept on Vimana).
• Brihadeshwara temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. This is the 2nd best temple of Cholas. This was built by Rajendra I.
• Kampahareshwara Temple at Tribhuvanam, Tn. It was built by Kuluttonga I.
• Iravateshwara temple at Darasuram (Near Tanjavore). Built by Rajendra Chola II.
• Kuranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur. This was built by Parantaka I.
• Best sculptor of Chola period was 'Bronze Nataraja'. This is des described by scholars as 'Epitome of Chola art'. It has four hands. (Nataraja is a depiction of the Hindu god Shiva as the cosmic dancer who performs his divine dance to destroy a weary universe. The sculpture is usually made in bronze, with Shiva dancing in an aureole of flames, lifting his left leg and balancing over a demon or dwarf (Apasrnara) who symbolises ignorance. It is a well known sculptural symbol in India and popularly used as a symbol of Indian culture.)
• Hoyasala were best at architecture and arts and their sculptures have become a benchmark. Best temples of this kingdom were

     ->  Hoyasaleshwara Temple at Dwarasamudra
     ->  Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.

• These two are most beautiful temples of Hoysala architecture and they are built in Vesara Style. The outer panels are decorated with thousands of finely sculpted pictures.

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Political System and Religious Changes in Aryan Civilization

Political System 

Phase I 

• Every tribe has a leader who is elected i.e., it is not hereditary and is called `Rajan' a clear example of Republican way.
• Sabha, Samithi (tribal assemblies) are very much there & Rajan is answerable to these assemblies.
• Duties of Raja — Protect Jana (People), Pasti (Cattle). 
• There is no concept of Janapada (Kingdom). No kingdoms were established (Pastoral economy, Nomadic life is the reason.
• Fierce inter-tribal wars were fought for cattle-lifting but not for territory. The term for .war in Rig Veda is `Gavisthi'.
• `Dasaragna' (Battle of Ten Kings) is the famous battle. mentioned in Rig Veda, this war was fought between Baratha clan and Kuru clan  along with his 9 allies as a confederation. Thus, the battle was fought on the banks of Parushni River (raavi). The king of Bharatha was Sudama and he emerged victoriously.
•  [Bharatha son of Shakuntala & Dushyanta; Shakunthala daughter of Vishwa Mitra & Menaka; every time a reference about Vishwamitra is made, but nothing is known about him; these are the only characters created by Great Kalidasa but not historical figures.]
• Various officers in administration and bureaucracy, these officers assist Rajan.

1. Purohit
2. Senapati
3. Vrajapati (Pasture  lands in charge)
4. Gramani (Head of a Village) 

•  Source of income — Bali (it not a tax, but voluntary offering; tax concept hasn't evolved yet) 

Phase II 

• Janapada - Territorial states have formed, many kingdoms emerged.
• Monarchical System - It is not democratic but it is totally autocratic.
• Tribal identity is merged into territorial identity
• Primary goal is protecting territories
• The tax system was introduced: Bagha (share) is the tax, Bhagadug - Tax collector in Later Vedic Period.  Sangrahitri is the treasure. 

Religious Changes 

Phase I 

• Worship of natural forces — Plants, Earth, Sun, Moon, Water, Weather, Fire, and Wind
• Anthropomorphic and human characteristic are attributed to Gods.

1. Indra -- He is personification of weather as well as war god
2. Varuna -- Water
3. Agni -- God of Fire
4. Tvastri -- Volcano
5. Vayu -- God of Wind
6. Surya -- Sun
7. Sama -- Plant
8. Aswins -- Gods are Medicinal Plants
9. Marut -- Gods of Thunder Storm 
10. Ushas -- Dawn
11. Aditi -- Goddess of Earth
12. Savitri -- Morning Light or Bright Light

• Methods of worshiping was very simple; through compiling and chanting prayers and through offerings like vegetables, flowers, soma, drink (It is a ritual drink and in particular to India who is also known as 'Somapa'.
• Rig Veda religion was highly materialistic. 

Phase II 

• Three Supreme Gods, have emerged — trinity 

1. Prajapati Later he became Brahma; Function -- Creator.
2. Rudra -- He is a destroyer of Evils.
3. Vishnu -- He the protector.

• Religion became ritualistic and animals sacrifices.
• Highly spiritual and speculative (nonmaterialistic).

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Mysore conquest and Anglo Mysore wars

Mysore conquest

• Mysore province was initially part of Vijayanagara Empire created by 'Sri Krishna Devaraya' with Srirangapatnam as capital. Mysore was under the control of Nayakas (Governor of Vijayanagara of Mysore region are called Nayakas).
• Wadeyar; a nayaka declared independence after the end of Vijayanagara Empire. From 1610 to 1947 Mysore was ruled by Wadeyar dynasty, of course, there were two interruptions in the rule from 1761 to 1799 by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan and 1831 to 1881 by British.

Hyder Ali

• Hyder Ali ruled Mysore from 1761 to 1782. Hyder Ali had very humble background was very poor and illiterate person. He joined the wadeyar army as a petty soldier. Due to his efficiency and his skills displayed in various wars, he was appointed as 'Faujdar of Dindigal' (Dist level post). At Dindigal, he started a modern arsenal and increased his muscle thereafter dismissed then Wadeyar King 'Chikki Krishnaraya Wadeyar' and establishing Muslim rule in Mysore province. King was not killed but put in a sort of house arrest.
• During Hyder Ali reign Mysore region was expanded in leaps and bounds. He followed a policy of annexation fighting many wars in the process of conquering. He conquered Krishna-Tungabhadra region from Marathas, Rayalaseerna up to Tirupati from Nizams and other territories in Tamil Nadu also. He was a man of religious tolerance. He gave large endowments to Balaji temple in Tirupati. He continual printing of Shiva and Parvati on the coins as done by Wadeyars earlier. Somehow there was a dispute between Hyder Ali and British which led to two Anglo-Mysore wars.

First anglo Mysore war

• This war was fought from 1766 to 1769 among Hyder Ali and then Madras governor 'Lord McCartney'. Many battles were fought either losing or winning by one another. Both parties got exhausted and war concluded with 'Treaty of Madras' which says Prewar status quo to be maintained. After this, there was a certain relief in either party till next war was fought.

Second Anglo-Mysore war

• This war was fought from 1780 to 1784 among Hyder Ali and First Governor General 'Warren Hastings'. During the course of war in 1782, Hyder Ali died due to Cancer, a natural death. So his son Tippu Sultan continued war. Both parties again got exhausted and war was concluded with a ceasefire 'Treaty of Mangalore' which says to maintain pre-war status quo.

Tippu Sultan

• Tippu Sultan inherited the throne immediately after the death of his father and came to power in 1782 ruled till 1799. He was the most formidable enemy to British. He gave tough resistance to British than any other ruler. So he is popularly known as 'Sher-e-Mysore' (Tiger of Mysore).
• He abolished Zamindari system; introduced a new calendar; and also printed a new gold coin (Mohur); also, set up modern industries; a network of highways was built especially in Malabar region. He  suppressed all Polegars (warlords); [Polegars are initially maintained Vijayanagara rulers in RayalaSeema region. Polegars are expected to maintain a certain army and these shall fight for the king. Initially, this was good but of late there were differences between each polegar and group rivalry, started that is factionalism. Each group attacked either of them in the process of retaliation. This is even now flourishing in this region].
• Mangalore has become chief port of export for Spices of Kerala and Sandalwood of Mysore region. To promote foreign trade he sent his envoys to China, Iran, Turkey, Burma, France and etc.
• He maintained very cordial relationships with French of Mahe as well as France. With their help, he started modernizing and strengthening the military. He became a member of Jacobin political party which in 1789 led French revolution. Being a monarch he didn't support a co-monarch but he supported people of France. He also celebrated the triumph of revolution by planting a tree named 'Liberty' at Srirangapatnam.
• He was a literate and scholar in many languages, unlike his father. He had a great library in his palace where books of various languages across the world are shelved. British were astonished by his intellect skills and books were little later taken away by them to Calcutta.
• He was also a religious tolerant man just like his father. He followed a policy of secularism. One best example was he had built his palace in the vicinity of Ranganatha temple (built by Vijayanagara rulers) so that the chanting of sanctum santorum could reach his ear in the dawn which is very good way to start a day. He also gave huge donations to Sringeri Sarada temple which were looted by Maratha kings later. Somehow there were no friendly relations between Tippu Sultan and British Which led to two more Anglo-Mysore wars.

Third Anglo-Mysore war

• This was fought from 1790 to 1792. Tippu Sultan on one side and another side a confederation of Govern general Lord Cornwallis along- with Nizam Ali, Nawab of Nizam and Maratha King were fighting.[Nizmas were supporting British its - their territory was occupied by Hyder Ali and same with Marathas. This has been the with every ruler of Indian states who were rivals among themselves non-supporting to each other which turned advantage to British]. Tippu Sultan gave tough resistance but could not withstand finally defeated. Then war was concluded with a 'Treaty of Sriranzanatnam'. This is no status quo treaty but a humiliating treaty to 'Sher-e-Mysore'.
• Few provisions were

- 50% of the kingdom was taken away and shared among the confederation. [Krishna-Tungabhadra region to Marathas, Rayalaseerna to Nizams and rest of remaining territory in 50% like Baramahal in Tamil Nadu were taken by British].

- 3 crore rupees of war indemnity shall be paid by Tippu Sultan in easy installments and as a guarantee, his 2 sons were taken to Bengal.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore war

• Tippu Sultan was not a person of cowardice. He doesn't want to sit pressing his hands so he retaliated so as a result a war was fought in 1799. Governor General Lord Wellesley wants to exterminate Tippu Sultan completely as his any existence further would bring perils to British.
• Reason British felt danger was because his relation with French and other Kings. Tippu had great international relations. He wrote letters to all anti-British rulers around the world. He wrote to Afghan ruler 'Zarnanshah' and also to Napoleon Bonaparte inviting them to India. If they had come British would have reduced to debris.
• In this war, Tippu was not only defeated but also killed at Sri Rangapatnam. After his death, Wellesley out of huge empire of Mysore, Empire created a small state comprising Mysore, Srirangapatnam, and neighboring areas and made (Chikki Krishnaraya Wadeyar III as King. This area was very insignificant and rest territory 90% was annexed to British sovereign. Original ,territory of Wadeyars was given back to them but not the conquered parts. By doing so, British claimed themselves as righteous rulers. They only got rid of de facto and usurped rulers but not the genuine inheritors.
• This transfer of territory was not unconditional and that is never British policy. Here Wadeyars were asked to sign a subsidiary alliance. In 1799, CK II signed and got Mysore territory.

Subsidiary Alliance

• This is an imperial scheme developed by Lord Wellesley in the year 1778 and primary objective was to bring Indian states under the authority of British without waging wars. Certain provisions of this were

- Once it is signed, British shall give complete protection to that signatory state. The powerful military cover is given to Wing from any revolt or invade.

- In order to give protection, subsidiary forces are maintained in the capital exclusively for the protection of the signatory state.

- The entire cost of maintenance shall be paid by the signatory state either in cash to British or equal revenue generating land can be ceded to British. [Nizam Nawab has ceded Rayalaseema region in lieu of cash, so this region is referred as ceded even now].

- Signatory state shall surrender all foreign affairs to British like to wage a war a leave has to be taken from British authority; any treaty shall be through British and may others.

- Foreigners shall not be allowed without permission of British (Fear of Napoleon (who was raising a paramount power).

- To maintain all these things a British officer called 'British resident' shall be stationed permanently in capital. These residents involved in all administrative affairs whereas Kings became puppets.

- First, Nawab to sign was Nizam Ali of Hyderabad in 1798, then Chikka Krishnaraya Wadeyar III in 1799, Sultan Sadat Ali of Avadh in 1801, Peshwa Bajirao II of Maratha in 1802 and etc.

• Finally Mysore state was conquered by British in the span of 30 years.

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Mitakshara and Dayabhaga

Mitakshara and Dayabhaga

• The Mitakshara is a vivrti (legal commentary) on the Yajnavalkya Smriti best known for its theory of 'inheritance by birth'.
• The Dayabhaga is a Hindu law treatise written by Jirnutavahana (A Bengal Jurist of 12th Century) which primarily focuses on inheritance procedure. (Dayabhaga deals with the laws of inheritance based on Yajnavalkya Smriti/ Manu Smriti).
• The Mitakshara, along with the Dayabhaga, became an influential source for British Courts in India. The Mitakshara was influential throughout the majority of India, except in Bengal and Assam, where the Dayabhaga prevailed as an authority for law (In Bengal (and post-independence West Bengal and Tripura) and Assam, Dayabhag,-a was the principal guide for laws on inheritance till the enactment of the Hindu Succession Act; 1956). The British were interested in administering the law in India, but they wanted to administer the law that already existed to the people. Thus, they searched for a text that could be used to help solve disputes among the people of India in manners which were already customary in the sub-continent. These disputes often involved property rights or inheritance issues.
• Thus, the first translation of the Mitakshara was by 'Henry Thomas Colebrooke' (a Calcutta Supreme Court judge) in 1810 (because there was an immediate need in the British courts for the 'law' regarding inheritance that already existed among the people of India), and it was only this section of the text that gave the British insight on how to deal with inheritance issues. At that point, the Mitaksara held the status of a legislative text because it was used as a direct resource regarding inheritance in the courts of law in most of the India. Even he translated the Dayabhaga in 1810 through the use of manuscripts and Pandits.

Central differences between the Dayabhaga and the Mitaksara

The central difference between the texts is based upon when one becomes the owner of property. The Dayabhaga does not give the sons a right to their father's ancestral property until after his death, unlike Mitakshara, which gives the sons the right to ancestral property upon their birth.

Sons Inheritance

The son has no right to the father's ances- tral property until after his death, or the father's ownership becomes extinct through other means, such as being excluded from the caste or becoming ascetic_ This is in direct contrast to the Mitaksara, which gives the sons a claiin upon birth.

The Rights of the Widow

The widow succeeds the father's property rights on his death, even in cases where he held property jointly with his brother.

Ancestral Property

Dayabhaga states that the father is.the sole ruler of all property, both ancestral and personal. Unlike the Mitaksara, ancestral property is not seen as communal; therefore the father does not require the consent of his sons to act over the ancestral property_ The essential difference between the 'Dayabhaga' and the Mitaksara family is that the 'Dayabhaga' sees no difference between the father's total control over ancestral and personal property.

Personal Property

The father has the right to do as he wishes with his personal property in both the Mitaksara and the Dayabhaga.

Inheritance/ Succession

After the father's death, the sons will succeed his portion of the ancestral property. This can be done during the father's lifetime, but only if the father chooses to do so. The property is not communally owned by the family, as it is in the Mitaksara. Each son has the ability to do what he wishes with his portion of the property after his father's death.

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Economy and Society aspects in Aryan Civilization

Economy

Phase -I

• Pastoral Economy (based on animal domestication) is primary. Agrarian is on a limited scale, secondary.
• In Rig Veda a food grain mentioned as 'Yava' (Wheat and Barley) was cultivated on a limited scale.
• A metal was also used called 'Aya' (Copper and Bronze) .
• Only Local trade & Commerce was carried on.
• A Jem mentioned in Rig Veda called 'Suvarna Nishka'; it served the purpose of a coin, believed by the scholars.

Phase -II

• Agrarian Economy is the primary reason because in this phase people moved towards Gangatic basic which are very fertile and virgin lands. Pastoral wasn't totally abandoned but on a limited scale.
• Vrihi a food grain, known as paddy is grown here.
• It was after 1000 BC iron began to be used this is called as 'Krishnaya' by later Vedic people.
• Much improved Trade & Commerce.
• Urbanization for the first time in the Indo-Gangatic basin has taken place. The first cities were

- Hastinapur, UP

- Kaushambi, UP (modern Kosam)

- Ahichachatra, UP (Modern Rae Bareli)

Society

Phase -I

• Patriarchal joint family system. Senior male member is the head of the family and called Kulapa.
• There is the class system but not a caste system. This hasn't emerged yet. Three classes were existing

                                 i.            Priest Classes

                               ii.            Warrior Classes

                              iii.            Commoners(Rest of the people) 

• Social mobility and profession mobility freedom are given. Freedom to move between classes is there. Upward or downward mobility is possible. Professions are neither hereditary nor exclusive.
• Aslokain Purushasukta, that deals with 'caste system' that belongs to Rig Veda, it was added later.
• Interdining & interclass marriages much prevailed.

- Higher class/caste man marries lower class/caste woman it is called Anuloma (Hypergamous Marriage)

- Lower class/caste man marries higher class/caste woman it is called Pratiloma (Hypergamous Marriage)

Position of Women:

• Women are given independence, equality, and freedom. Society was more mature.
• Poly Andrey also practiced in Rig Vedic Period.
• No kind of gender domination, no gender discrimination.
• No child marriages.were allowed. There is a clear indication in one of Rig Veda hymn that marriage is allowed only after attaining puberty.
• Women were equally literate and intellectual. More than 20 women scholars were mentioned in Rig Veda. A women scholar named 'Gosha' means 'rishi' is very much respected. She didn't marry (a spinster) and spent her entire life in pursuit of education staying at parent's house.
• There are mentioning(s) of Sati but only symbolic not actually practiced.
• No reference about widow marriages, but not restricted. This can be said from a word 'Niyogi' is found in Rig Veda it means - A Widow can marry the brother of the deceased husband (In English Levitate).
• Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh was placed where 'Viragals' were found. Stone raised on tombs of soldiers dead in the war. They are also called hero stones. In Tamilnadu, these are called as 'Nadukkul'.

Phase II:

• Chaturvarna (four castes) system emerged.

i) Brahmanas

ii) Kshatriyas

iii) Vysyas

iv) Sudras

• Social mobility is completely checked. Upward/Downward movement is not allowed.
• No Inter-dining is allowed.
• Anuloma is legal but not Pratiloma.
• The off-springs of the Pratilorna marriage are called 'Chandala' (Scavenger).
• The dignity of women is no more seen. Complete suppression of women rights through various social evil practices.
• Child marriage is practiced. A text of this period says 'ideal marriage of a bride is a 1/3rd age of groom'.
• Sati became compulsory, widow marriages were tabooed.
• Polygyny is accepted but not polyandry.

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British conquest of India (part - 1) Bengal conquest

British conquest of India

British, East India Co started conquering India after 1757. Bengal was first to declare independence from Mughals and first to be conquered by British. Avadh was the last state to be annexed by British in 1856. After this, they didn't conquer or annex any territories. Almost 500+ kingdoms were conquered by British in 100 years. Even after this, there were almost 563 odd states unconquered and independent till 1947. Statistically, British conquered amounts only to 50% of the territory of India which is called 'British India' and rest of the territories are called 'Princely India'. While leaving India in 1947 British has portioned British India as Pakistan and India, the choice was given to princely states to join either country. Most of the princely states joined Indian union.

Bengal conquest

• Conquest of Bengal didn't happen overnight or due to a single reason. There were many reasons like free trade, fortifications, supporting rivals, the capture of fort William etc.
• AS per 1717, farmana British were allowed customs-free trade in 3 subhas, so in those subhas to carry on trade British governor of Fort William issued Dastak permitting transit and trade by merchants. Interlopers are personal traders Working in EEIC. This trade was bigger than company trade. Interlopers started enjoying Dastak and even this was being sold to local merchants who are close to English merchants. This caused irritation to other merchants and they revolted against this.
• Siraj-ud-Daula, GrandsOn of Ali Vardi Khan ruled Bengal territory for the year 1756 to 1757. He ordered to halt the fortification in Bengal. French and Dutch obeyed the order but British not. So (this causes a dispute between Siraj and British).
• Revolting parties and persons against Siraj Were given refugee in Fort William by British which deepened the fissure between Nawab and British. So Siraj finally invaded Fort William and captured its governor William Drake. In this Fort William, an event occurred which is named as 'Black Hole Tragedy' which immediately resulted in war between Nawab and British.

Black hole Tragedy

• When the governor was captured along with him Siraj also captured 146 English officers of Fort William and Imprisoned them in a small dark chamber. When it was opened only 16 were live remaining 130 died of suffocation. This hurt British a lot and then retaliated. Robert Clive who has scored a tremendous victory over French in Carnatic war was called back to Bengal and the task of Siraj was given to him.

Battle of Plassey

• 23 June 1757 a battle took place in Plassey, Bengal in which Siraj was defeated out rightly. British were capable of defeating Siraj because of the sedition, treason, betrayal of his Senapati 'Mir Jafar' who had the secret alliance with Robert Clive. This is not a battle but a betrayal. After the victory, British didn't assume the power of Bengal. During 1757 to 1772 many developments took place in Bengal before British assumed power. Many Nawabs were appointed just a figureheads and when they revolted they were either dethroned or killed.
• After defeating Siraj, as per the truce Robert Clive gave back power to Mirjafar thus he became Nawab of Bengal. He ruled till 1760. For supporting in gaining thrown he showered favors on British. He allowed them to carry free trade throughout Bengal. 1.7 Crore rupees was paid as war indemnity to British. Robert Clive was given 2 million and another office Watson was given 1 million rupees for the favour. He also gave 24 Paraganas to East India Company. After doing all this Mirjafar considered that he paid well in return and tried to rule on his own but this was not the strategy of British. They want him only as a puppet in their hands. Moreover, Mirjafar was developing cordial relations with Dutch. He is revamping his army with the help of Dutch. So British smelled some threat and in 1759 'Battle of Badera' Dutch were expelled from India and in 1760 Mirjafar was dethroned.
• In 1760, Mirjafar's nephew and son-in-law 'Mir Qasim' was ascended to the throne. He ruled till 1763. In return of favour, he gave 3 districts to EEIC. They were Chittagong, Midnapur, and Burdwan. Of late British were also involving in administrative affairs of King which irritated 'Mir Qasim' who wants to be independent. To maintain independence he shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Malgir in Bihar. Murshidabad was most forward region and highly economical whereas Malgir was completely rural area and trade was minimal. He thought this step would decrease the impedance of British in administration. British got annoyed and so Mir Qasim was dismissed and dethroned. So British have no other alternative but to appointed Mirjafar has Nawab who was already suffering from leprosy.
• Mir Qasim a very young and dynamic personality who wants to rule independently went to Avadh Sultan 'Shuja-ud-din' to seek assistance in getting the power and territory back. To his surprise there he found Mughal Sultan 'Shah Alam 2' taking shelter. He convinced both the sultans and promised huge amount so these three kings formed a tripartite alliance and prepared for battle with British.

Battle of Buxar

• In 1764, at Buxar, a battle was fought between combined forces of Nawabs and British in which British scored a tremendous victory. British forces were led by its commander 'Henry Munro' as Robert Clive was in England.
• In 1765, his war concluded with a Treaty of Allahabad. Robert Clive who was in England during the battle was called back to India and he was the mastermind behind this treaty. According to this treaty, Bengal administration should be divided into two parts known as Dual government. As per this truce Diwani administration shall be given to East India Co and whereas Nizamat administration to Nawab. For maintenance of army annually 52 crore rupees shall be given.
• Diwani administration — Revenue collections
• Nizamat administration — Law and Order & Defence maintenance
• The system was in operation for 7 years that is till 1772. This act draining Indian wealth. Demarcation was done only at the top level whereas at the bottom level both functions were given to the same person. Though truce says bureaucrats shall be Maintained by British this didn't happen. The duality of command led to mismanagement and breakdown of administration. Of late this caused a huge famine in Bengal in which 1/3rd of the population died of starvation etc.
• In 1772, a new governor 'Warren Hasting' was appointed in Bengal who immediately discontinued this dual government system. He also abolished Nawab system and all sovereign powers were taken away. Hereafter Nawabs were made as pensioners. This is how British were successful in conquering Bengal slowly and strategically.

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Deccan Dynasties: Rashtrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas

Deccan Dynasties

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (753-973 AD)

• These were the most significant kings of the period. No Kings of other dynasty were able to stand before these kings. Their empire sways from North- South. Many dynasties were their feudatories (like Cholas, Palas, Vemulavada Chalukyas, Vengi Chalukyas etc).
• Their military achievements were magnificent. Their contribution to Art and Architecture is most significant and remarkable. World's best and greatest cave temples were built by them. These were the last kings who patronized cave temples. After them, this cave temple activity lost its sheen and it was completely abandoned by next generation rulers.
• These rulers patronized Sanskrit literature apart from colloquial languages. Kannada literature was started in this epoch. The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly influenced by Jainism.
• These ruled with Ellora (Venul) now in Maharastra as their capital city.
• At Ellora, they have built 34 cave temples — 5 of them were Jain, 10-12 were Buddhists and rest were Shivas and Vaishnavas.

Dantidurga

• The first king of this dynasty was Dantidurga, who was a feudatory to Badami Chalukyas later he overthrew Kirtivarman II and declared himself independent.
• Dantidurga has built 2 cave temples at Ellora. They were
• Dashavatara cave temple (Cave No 15. This cave depicts the ten forms (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. The sculpture which portrays lord Narasimha killing Hiranyakashapu is beautiful and worth seeing. We see the anger on Narsingh's face while there is utter fear on Hiranyakashapu's face).
• Ravan Ka Khai (Cave No 14. This is a Shiva cave and is famous for a sculpture of Ravana holding the Kailash Mountain).

Krishna I

• Next, important king, the successor of Dantidurga was 'Krishna I' he built a cave temple at Ellora was known as Kailashanatha Temple (The 16th cave is famous all over the world as the Kailash cave or temple. It's an achievement in terms of architecture and sculpture and is a unique temple which has been made from a single rock face. It has been chiseled from top to bottom, which is extremely rare for temple architecture.
• This is perhaps biggest, greatest and magnificent rock cut cave temple in the World. This is a frank imitation of Kailashanatha temple of Kanchi built by Pallavans. So the style of sculpture in this temple is Dravidian. This is a monolithic structure. It is observed that for building this it took almost 100 yearS and 6 generations down the line.

Amoghavarsha I (814 - 878)

• Next, an important king was Amoghavarsha I (also Nrupathunga). He had the lengthy reign and considered greatest among the rest of all Kings of this dynasty.
• He built a new capital city called 'Manyakheta' and thus shifted his capital from Ellora to Manyakheta.
• He took the title 'Kaviraja'. He wrote 2 books called
• Kavirajamarga (First text of Kannada literature and this is the earliest available text of Kannada and this hook is on grammar).
• Prashnottara Ratnamalika (A Sanskrit book written in the form of Questions and Answers on Jainism. This is because Amoghavarsha was a staunch follower of Jainism).
• Amoghavarsha ended his life performing Sallekhana. Sallekhana he performed was in a different way. He didn't fast unto death but he submerged himself into holy waters of Tungabhadra and gave up his life.
• There were many Sanskrit scholars in his court. Few of them are Jinasena - he wrote 'Aadipurana'
• Saktayana - he Wrote 'Amogavriti' (A book on Grammar)
• Mahaviracharya - A Jain Mathematician - He wrote a great book on Mathematics called 'Ganitasarasangraha'. (Pauluri Mallana contemporaries to Nannaya translated this Ganitasarasangraha into Telugu).

Krishna III

• He took the title of 'Tanjavore Konda' (Conqueror of Tanjavore, the capital city of Cholas).
• In 949 AD battle of Takkolam, Chola Emperor Parantaka Chola was defeated. After the battle, Krishna III erected a victory pillar at Rameshwaram.
• The last king was Karka, he was killed by one of his Samantha (feudatory) called Tailapa II, who went on to form Kalyani Chalukyas.

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/eastern-indian-dynasties-palas-and-sena.html

Kalyani Chalukyas (973 — 1189)

This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukyas after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka.

Vikramaditya VI

• One important king of this dynasty is Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126). Two scholars adorned his court and they are
• Bilhana - He wrote Vikramadevacharita (it is a eulogy of the King), written in Sanskrit.
• Vijnanesvara - Around in the late eleventh and early twelfth century. He wrote Mitaksara. He was a "profound student of the Purva-Mimamsa system," a system of exegetical thought focused on the interpretation of the Vedas.

Someshwara III

• Another King, Someshwara IlI - he wrote a Sanskrit book called 'Manasollasa'. This book has another name called 'Abhilashitarthachintamani'.
• He took the title called 'Sarvagna'.
• After the decline of Kalyani Chalukyas, two kingdoms have emerged in Deccan which were earlier feudatories. They are
• Yadava Kingdom (Maharastra region) with Devagiri as capital. In the Yadava court, an astronomer 'Bhaskaracharya' lived and he wrote books like 'Siddantha Shiromani' a book on Mathematics and Leelavathi a book on Astronomy.
• Kakatiyas (Andhra Region) with Warangal as capital.

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Vedic / Aryan Civilization (1500 BC - 600 BC)

Original Home

• The original home of Aryans is still a point of debate. So there are many hypotheses. One of such is - The scholars who opened Saptha Sindhu as a home of Aryans were Sampurna Anand and A.C.Das. Sapta Sindhu (Afghanistan, Himalaya, Yamuna & Aravalli as boundaries that land is called Sapta Sindhu)- Seven Rivers

§  Saraswati

§  Sindhu (Indus)

§  Parushni (Raavi)

§  Vitasa (Jhelum)

§  Vipasa (Beas)

§  Satudri (Sale)

§  Asikini (Chenab)

--Tibet - Expressed by Dayanand Saraswati.

--Arctic - Bala Gangadhar Tilak is written a book titled "Arctic, The Home of Aryan".

--Germany - Almost by European historians.

--Central Asia - This is mostly accepted and sounds rational theory & proposed by Max Muller. He is a German Indologist and Sanskrit professor in German Universities. He translated Rig Veda into English. He proposed that Aryans came from Central Asia. His theory is based on Philology (Study of languages and their comparisons) and Epigraphy.

• There is a very old inscription at a place Bhogazkoi (Turkey) which belongs to Aryans (1400 BC). This supports the Max Muller theory. There is a reference in the script that says Aryans are moving towards Eastern along with their Gods like Indra, Varuna...etc).
•  Aryan Civilization, we study in two parts (phases).

                 --- 1500 BC - 1000 BC (Early Vedic culture/ Rig Vedic Culture) - Phase I.

                 --- 1000 BC - 600 BC (Later Vedic period) - Phase II.

• Rig Veda is the earliest and written in the first phase. so the phase is named after this. No other book is available to study the first phase except Rig Veda. Only with this Rig Veda, this phase is studied.
• The reason to study the AC in two phases is because after a 1000BC tremendous change came in culture. No matter Geography has a major role in it. Location of the first phase and second are different. By the end of the first phase, people began to move towards east Gangatic.

• This civilization is developed by Aryans, who are believed to be foreigners (People from Central Asia). We call them Aryans because they speak Aryan. So it is a linguistic term. These people belong to the Nordic region.
• These people composed a large number of Vedic literature this is called Vedic civilization. The first text was prepared by Aryan. Historic age began with the advent of Aryan.
•  700-800 cities/sites have been excavated. Archeologist gave this civilization name as "Painted Grey Ware". Because they found pottery of gray color and painted  at many  sites.
• Vedic literature is .completely sacred, pious and not secular. Later this formed a pillar of Hindu religion.
• Aryan literature can be divided into 8 parts

1. Vedas

2. Brahmanas

3. Aranyaka

4.Upanishads

5. Vedangas

6. Puranas

7.Upavedas

8. Ithihasa

Literature:

Vedas

•  Rig Veda has got 1028 hymns

- Divided into 10 Mandalams / Chapters

- The name of 10th chapter is Purusha Sukta and here one sloka refers about 'Caste System".

• Yajur Veda - Rituals
• Sama Veda - Deals with music
• Atharvana Veda - Contains magical issues to deal with diseases (Mantras)

Brahmanas 

These are '7' and all these deal with rituals.

• Aitereya Brahmana
• Shulapata Brahmana
• Kausitika Brahmana

Aranyakas

• Books related to forest living hermit i.e., Rishis, certain Aranyankas are appended to Brahmanas. So '7' Aranyankas added to '7' Brahmanas.

Upanishads

They are 108 in total in number

• Chandogya
• Gruhadranyaka
• Mundokap ("Satya Meva Jayathe" comes from this)
• Shwetheswatara
• Jabalo

Vedanga

• They are six in number

Siksha — Phonetics

Nirpkta — Etymology (Origin of words)

Vyakarna — Grammar

Chandassu — Metrics

Jyothishya — Astrology

Kalpa — Rituals

• There are three parts of Kalpa.

• Grihasutra — Home rituals (16 rituals are to be performed and maintained / described in Grihasutra). One such ritual is Upanayana. Dvija are 'Twice-born' and Ekaja are 'Single born'. The performance of Upanayana ritual is like being born once again. So who ever do this ritual is Dvija and rest who does not perform is Ekaja. The performance of this ritual is confined only to People/Male of Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vysyas are only allowed for Upanayana. Sudras and women of 4 categories are not allowed for upanayana.
• Stauthasutra — Public rituals
• Suluva -Construction of fire altars (Sulva Sutra deals with the construction of fire altars and huge knowledge of geometry is dealt in detail).

Puranas

Puranas are 18 in number. These contain unbelievable mythological stories and huge historical knowledge. Purana speaks of the genealogy of ancient period kings.

• Vishnu Purana
• Padma Purana
• Matsya Purana
• Vayu Purana 

Upavedas

Upavedas are 4 in number.

• Ayurveda = Knowledge of life (Ayu = Life)
• Ghandarvaveda = Music
• Shilpaveda = Architecture
• Dhanurveda = Archery

Ithihasas

Epics are 2 in number

• Ramayana
• Mahabharata (Bhagavad-Gita is an appendix to Mahabharata)

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Later Mughal Empire

Later Mughal Empire

During 18thC in India, there was a lot of political tensions, turmoil, and disintegrations of Mughal Empire etc. This collectively provided an environment conducive forBritish to creep in Indian territories spreading their trade and actively increasing their power and root is Indian politics. Moreover, Mughal emperor after Aurangzeb were not so powerful and dynamic so their timidity and being indifference to issues given a boost and opportunity to various officers to usurp power and declare independence. Thereafter the disintegration of Mughals has started and it shattered into more than 1000 kingdoms. Their weakness led British to rise as the supreme paramount power in India.

Mughals after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 their rule continued till 1857 but not so effectively. These rulers were only figured head and puppets in the hands of vazirs and other nobles.

Bahadur Shah:

• He is also known as 'Alam Shah I' ruled from 1707 to 1712. Contemporary historian describes him as 'Shah-i-Bekhabar' (Heedless emperor).

Jahandar Shah I :

• He ruled for only a year 1712 - 1713. His vazir 'Zulfik-Khan' was defacto authority. He abolished Jiziya once for all in India. He also introduced a new revenue system called 'Ijara'. A middle _man is appointed for collecting tax on behalf of the state and he Shall return the amount to state while he receives a commission. This is a tax intermediary system.

Faruk Siyar:

• He ruled from 1713 to 1719. Two brothers in his nobility popularly known as 'Syed brothers' were defacto rulers. They were Syed Abdullah was vazir and Syed Hussain Ali Khan was Mir Bakshi.
• In the year 1717, he issued a farmana to English East India Company. According to this farmana, EEIC shall annually pay z 10000 to Mughals and in return the company can carry customs-free trade in 3 subhas. They are Bengal Subha, Gujarat Subha, and Deccan.

Mohd Shah:

• He is popularly known as Rangeela (pleasure-loving man) and ruled from 1719 to 1748. A contemporary historian says Sultan has neglected his duties, not only neglected least he didn't know what his duties are too. He is dancing with women, drinking etc. It was a great time for all dancers. Sultan himself was involved in Kathak dance and Hindustani musician.
• Two powerful nobles in his court were Nizam-ul-Mulk and Burham-ul-Mulk. These two officers were rivals to each other not only on political aspects but also on regional grounds. Nizam was Sunni from Central Asia known as Turanis and Burham was Irani Of late these two came out Delhi and declared independence by founding 2 different kingdoms. This is how disintegration started in Mughal Empire.
• 1722 - Faizabad as capital 'Avadh' Kingdom was founded by Burham. This capital was later shifted to Lucknow.
• 1724 - Nizam-ul-Mulk went to Deccan and founded 'Nizam' state with Aurangabad as capital which Was later shifted to Hyderabad during 'Nizam Ali' reign. Nizam-ul-Mulk has come down to Deccan because earlier he served as governor of Deccan twice in the Mughal period. He has good acquaintances and with their support, he was successful in founding the Nizam state. Nizam-ul-Mulk had a title 'Asaf Jha'. These Asaf Jhais ruled certain areas of Andhra Pradesh, Northern Karnataka, and Marathwada region till 1948.
• During Mohd Shah's reign in 1739, Sultan Nadir Shah of Iran invaded India. Nadir Shah was known as 'Napoleon of Iran', such powerful and fierce was that King. A Battle at 'Karnal'(Haryana) was fought between Nadir Shah and Mohd Shah looked like a nominal battle in which 'Mohd Shah' was defeated (One side was a powerful king and another side was a weak king). 'Nadir Shah' stayed in India 60 days plundering and looting the wealth of Mughals to his satisfaction. His booty was worth of 70 crores and also abducted Peacock throne and 'Koh-i-noor' diamond (Mountain of Diamond in Persia).However, Kohinoor diamond returned to India eventually which was taken away by British to England where as whereabouts of Peacock throne were unknown.

Ahmed Shah:

• He was son and successor of Rangeela ruled from 1748 to 1754. He was a puppet in the hands of his vazir, 'Imad-ul-Muck' who was very cruel, ferocious and powerful man. Because of a dispute between vazir and sultan, Ahmed Shah was imprisoned and in his place, Alaingir II  was made as Sultan. Alamgir ruled from 1754 to 1759.
• Again due to a dispute between Alamgir and Ahmed, Alamgir II was killed and his naked dead body was thrown into a river. Not even the last rites were performed such is the fate of Mughal Sultan.

Shah Alam II:

• He ruled from 1759 to 1806. No doubt he has a high-sounding title but personally he wasn't. He was in incognito for first 12 years taking shelter in Avadh for fear of Imad Shah. It is only after the death of 'Imad Shah' he returned and ruled. His territory at that time was confined to Delhi and Palam which was very insignificant and minute area. Contemporary historian says Alam territory does not go beyond Palam.
• In 1803 - These territories of Delhi and Palam were also occupied by British and confining Alam to Red Fort. Britishers on humane and compassionate grounds gave the pension of 11.5 lakh to Shah Alam to meet his requirements etc. So Shah Alam II became the first pensioner sultan. Hereafter Mughal sultans were given pensions but not sovereign powers.

Akbar II:

• He ruled from 1806 to 1837 unlike his ancestor Akbar he was very incapable and inept King. He was also pension receiving Sultan. As pension was insufficient to meet the expenses he made several petitions to EEIC to enhance but they didn't. So he decided to directly speak to Crown in England and get some remedy. He being very irrational and unwise. He sent a Bengal Brahmin who was western educated intellect. He conferred a title 'Raja' on him and thus he became Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
• As per sultan wish, he went to England but didn't return. He died in England itself and his tomb is found at Bristol.

Bahadur Shah II:

• The last sultan of Mughals ruled from 1837 to 1857. He was a good poet in Urdu and he wrote many shayris with pen name 'Zafar'.
• In 1857, Sepoy revolt started against British regime (Sepoy were Indian those serving in British Army). These wanted to end the British reign in India and reinstate Mughal rule. So, they convinced Bahadur Shah II finally. Initially, he was reluctant knowing the power of British and fear of getting killed. He requested them not to indulge him in this movement but forcibly made the leader of the movement. British eventually suppressed the revolt and entered Delhi massacred all members of Mughal family not even child and women were spared. No root of Mughal family was spared fearing the inheritance later.
• Bahadur Shah was captured in 1858 and put in Rangoon jail. In 1862 he died in the jail itself. He was buried there itself With this Mughals were completely gone once for all. A poet laments that poor Bahadur Shah II was so unfortunate that he could not get 6 feet land for his burial in his own motherland.

Related Posts: http://www.indianhistoryarticles.in/2016/04/british-conquest-of-india-part-1-bengal.html

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