British conquest of India (part - 1) Bengal conquest

Unknown Modern Indian History No comments

British conquest of India

British, East India Co started conquering India after 1757. Bengal was first to declare independence from Mughals and first to be conquered by British. Avadh was the last state to be annexed by British in 1856. After this, they didn't conquer or annex any territories. Almost 500+ kingdoms were conquered by British in 100 years. Even after this, there were almost 563 odd states unconquered and independent till 1947. Statistically, British conquered amounts only to 50% of the territory of India which is called 'British India' and rest of the territories are called 'Princely India'. While leaving India in 1947 British has portioned British India as Pakistan and India, the choice was given to princely states to join either country. Most of the princely states joined Indian union.

Bengal conquest

Conquest of Bengal didn't happen overnight or due to a single reason. There were many reasons like free trade, fortifications, supporting rivals, the capture of fort William etc.
AS per 1717, farmana British were allowed customs-free trade in 3 subhas, so in those subhas to carry on trade British governor of Fort William issued Dastak permitting transit and trade by merchants. Interlopers are personal traders Working in EEIC. This trade was bigger than company trade. Interlopers started enjoying Dastak and even this was being sold to local merchants who are close to English merchants. This caused irritation to other merchants and they revolted against this.
Siraj-ud-Daula, GrandsOn of Ali Vardi Khan ruled Bengal territory for the year 1756 to 1757. He ordered to halt the fortification in Bengal. French and Dutch obeyed the order but British not. So (this causes a dispute between Siraj and British).
Revolting parties and persons against Siraj Were given refugee in Fort William by British which deepened the fissure between Nawab and British. So Siraj finally invaded Fort William and captured its governor William Drake. In this Fort William, an event occurred which is named as 'Black Hole Tragedy' which immediately resulted in war between Nawab and British.

Black hole Tragedy

When the governor was captured along with him Siraj also captured 146 English officers of Fort William and Imprisoned them in a small dark chamber. When it was opened only 16 were live remaining 130 died of suffocation. This hurt British a lot and then retaliated. Robert Clive who has scored a tremendous victory over French in Carnatic war was called back to Bengal and the task of Siraj was given to him.

Battle of Plassey

23 June 1757 a battle took place in Plassey, Bengal in which Siraj was defeated out rightly. British were capable of defeating Siraj because of the sedition, treason, betrayal of his Senapati 'Mir Jafar' who had the secret alliance with Robert Clive. This is not a battle but a betrayal. After the victory, British didn't assume the power of Bengal. During 1757 to 1772 many developments took place in Bengal before British assumed power. Many Nawabs were appointed just a figureheads and when they revolted they were either dethroned or killed.
After defeating Siraj, as per the truce Robert Clive gave back power to Mirjafar thus he became Nawab of Bengal. He ruled till 1760. For supporting in gaining thrown he showered favors on British. He allowed them to carry free trade throughout Bengal. 1.7 Crore rupees was paid as war indemnity to British. Robert Clive was given 2 million and another office Watson was given 1 million rupees for the favour. He also gave 24 Paraganas to East India Company. After doing all this Mirjafar considered that he paid well in return and tried to rule on his own but this was not the strategy of British. They want him only as a puppet in their hands. Moreover, Mirjafar was developing cordial relations with Dutch. He is revamping his army with the help of Dutch. So British smelled some threat and in 1759 'Battle of Badera' Dutch were expelled from India and in 1760 Mirjafar was dethroned.
In 1760, Mirjafar's nephew and son-in-law 'Mir Qasim' was ascended to the throne. He ruled till 1763. In return of favour, he gave 3 districts to EEIC. They were Chittagong, Midnapur, and Burdwan. Of late British were also involving in administrative affairs of King which irritated 'Mir Qasim' who wants to be independent. To maintain independence he shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Malgir in Bihar. Murshidabad was most forward region and highly economical whereas Malgir was completely rural area and trade was minimal. He thought this step would decrease the impedance of British in administration. British got annoyed and so Mir Qasim was dismissed and dethroned. So British have no other alternative but to appointed Mirjafar has Nawab who was already suffering from leprosy.
Mir Qasim a very young and dynamic personality who wants to rule independently went to Avadh Sultan 'Shuja-ud-din' to seek assistance in getting the power and territory back. To his surprise there he found Mughal Sultan 'Shah Alam 2' taking shelter. He convinced both the sultans and promised huge amount so these three kings formed a tripartite alliance and prepared for battle with British.

Battle of Buxar

In 1764, at Buxar, a battle was fought between combined forces of Nawabs and British in which British scored a tremendous victory. British forces were led by its commander 'Henry Munro' as Robert Clive was in England.
In 1765, his war concluded with a Treaty of Allahabad. Robert Clive who was in England during the battle was called back to India and he was the mastermind behind this treaty. According to this treaty, Bengal administration should be divided into two parts known as Dual government. As per this truce Diwani administration shall be given to East India Co and whereas Nizamat administration to Nawab. For maintenance of army annually 52 crore rupees shall be given.
Diwani administration — Revenue collections
Nizamat administration — Law and Order & Defence maintenance
The system was in operation for 7 years that is till 1772. This act draining Indian wealth. Demarcation was done only at the top level whereas at the bottom level both functions were given to the same person. Though truce says bureaucrats shall be Maintained by British this didn't happen. The duality of command led to mismanagement and breakdown of administration. Of late this caused a huge famine in Bengal in which 1/3rd of the population died of starvation etc.
In 1772, a new governor 'Warren Hasting' was appointed in Bengal who immediately discontinued this dual government system. He also abolished Nawab system and all sovereign powers were taken away. Hereafter Nawabs were made as pensioners. This is how British were successful in conquering Bengal slowly and strategically.

Deccan Dynasties: Rashtrakutas and Kalyani Chalukyas

Unknown Medieval Indian History

Deccan Dynasties

Rashtrakuta Dynasty (753-973 AD)

These were the most significant kings of the period. No Kings of other dynasty were able to stand before these kings. Their empire sways from North- South. Many dynasties were their feudatories (like Cholas, Palas, Vemulavada Chalukyas, Vengi Chalukyas etc).
Their military achievements were magnificent. Their contribution to Art and Architecture is most significant and remarkable. World's best and greatest cave temples were built by them. These were the last kings who patronized cave temples. After them, this cave temple activity lost its sheen and it was completely abandoned by next generation rulers.
These rulers patronized Sanskrit literature apart from colloquial languages. Kannada literature was started in this epoch. The early kings of this dynasty were Hindu but the later kings were strongly influenced by Jainism.
These ruled with Ellora (Venul) now in Maharastra as their capital city.
At Ellora, they have built 34 cave temples — 5 of them were Jain, 10-12 were Buddhists and rest were Shivas and Vaishnavas.

Dantidurga

The first king of this dynasty was Dantidurga, who was a feudatory to Badami Chalukyas later he overthrew Kirtivarman II and declared himself independent.
Dantidurga has built 2 cave temples at Ellora. They were
Dashavatara cave temple (Cave No 15. This cave depicts the ten forms (avatars) of Lord Vishnu. The sculpture which portrays lord Narasimha killing Hiranyakashapu is beautiful and worth seeing. We see the anger on Narsingh's face while there is utter fear on Hiranyakashapu's face).
Ravan Ka Khai (Cave No 14. This is a Shiva cave and is famous for a sculpture of Ravana holding the Kailash Mountain).

Krishna I

Next, important king, the successor of Dantidurga was 'Krishna I' he built a cave temple at Ellora was known as Kailashanatha Temple (The 16th cave is famous all over the world as the Kailash cave or temple. It's an achievement in terms of architecture and sculpture and is a unique temple which has been made from a single rock face. It has been chiseled from top to bottom, which is extremely rare for temple architecture.
This is perhaps biggest, greatest and magnificent rock cut cave temple in the World. This is a frank imitation of Kailashanatha temple of Kanchi built by Pallavans. So the style of sculpture in this temple is Dravidian. This is a monolithic structure. It is observed that for building this it took almost 100 yearS and 6 generations down the line.

Amoghavarsha I (814 - 878)

Next, an important king was Amoghavarsha I (also Nrupathunga). He had the lengthy reign and considered greatest among the rest of all Kings of this dynasty.
He built a new capital city called 'Manyakheta' and thus shifted his capital from Ellora to Manyakheta.
He took the title 'Kaviraja'. He wrote 2 books called
Kavirajamarga (First text of Kannada literature and this is the earliest available text of Kannada and this hook is on grammar).
Prashnottara Ratnamalika (A Sanskrit book written in the form of Questions and Answers on Jainism. This is because Amoghavarsha was a staunch follower of Jainism).
Amoghavarsha ended his life performing Sallekhana. Sallekhana he performed was in a different way. He didn't fast unto death but he submerged himself into holy waters of Tungabhadra and gave up his life.
There were many Sanskrit scholars in his court. Few of them are Jinasena - he wrote 'Aadipurana'
Saktayana - he Wrote 'Amogavriti' (A book on Grammar)
Mahaviracharya - A Jain Mathematician - He wrote a great book on Mathematics called 'Ganitasarasangraha'. (Pauluri Mallana contemporaries to Nannaya translated this Ganitasarasangraha into Telugu).

Krishna III

He took the title of 'Tanjavore Konda' (Conqueror of Tanjavore, the capital city of Cholas).
In 949 AD battle of Takkolam, Chola Emperor Parantaka Chola was defeated. After the battle, Krishna III erected a victory pillar at Rameshwaram.
The last king was Karka, he was killed by one of his Samantha (feudatory) called Tailapa II, who went on to form Kalyani Chalukyas.

Kalyani Chalukyas (973 — 1189)

This dynasty is sometimes called the Kalyani Chalukyas after its regal capital at Kalyani, today's Basavakalyan in Karnataka.

Vikramaditya VI

One important king of this dynasty is Vikramaditya VI (1076-1126). Two scholars adorned his court and they are
Bilhana - He wrote Vikramadevacharita (it is a eulogy of the King), written in Sanskrit.
Vijnanesvara - Around in the late eleventh and early twelfth century. He wrote Mitaksara. He was a "profound student of the Purva-Mimamsa system," a system of exegetical thought focused on the interpretation of the Vedas.

Someshwara III

Another King, Someshwara IlI - he wrote a Sanskrit book called 'Manasollasa'. This book has another name called 'Abhilashitarthachintamani'.
He took the title called 'Sarvagna'.
After the decline of Kalyani Chalukyas, two kingdoms have emerged in Deccan which were earlier feudatories. They are
Yadava Kingdom (Maharastra region) with Devagiri as capital. In the Yadava court, an astronomer 'Bhaskaracharya' lived and he wrote books like 'Siddantha Shiromani' a book on Mathematics and Leelavathi a book on Astronomy.
Kakatiyas (Andhra Region) with Warangal as capital.

Vedic / Aryan Civilization (1500 BC - 600 BC)

Unknown Ancient Indian History

Original Home

The original home of Aryans is still a point of debate. So there are many hypotheses. One of such is - The scholars who opened Saptha Sindhu as a home of Aryans were Sampurna Anand and A.C.Das. Sapta Sindhu (Afghanistan, Himalaya, Yamuna & Aravalli as boundaries that land is called Sapta Sindhu)- Seven Rivers

§ Saraswati

§ Sindhu (Indus)

§ Parushni (Raavi)

§ Vitasa (Jhelum)

§ Vipasa (Beas)

§ Satudri (Sale)

§ Asikini (Chenab)

--Tibet - Expressed by Dayanand Saraswati.

--Arctic - Bala Gangadhar Tilak is written a book titled "Arctic, The Home of Aryan".

--Germany - Almost by European historians.

--Central Asia - This is mostly accepted and sounds rational theory & proposed by Max Muller. He is a German Indologist and Sanskrit professor in German Universities. He translated Rig Veda into English. He proposed that Aryans came from Central Asia. His theory is based on Philology (Study of languages and their comparisons) and Epigraphy.

There is a very old inscription at a place Bhogazkoi (Turkey) which belongs to Aryans (1400 BC). This supports the Max Muller theory. There is a reference in the script that says Aryans are moving towards Eastern along with their Gods like Indra, Varuna...etc).
Aryan Civilization, we study in two parts (phases).

--- 1500 BC - 1000 BC (Early Vedic culture/ Rig Vedic Culture) - Phase I.

--- 1000 BC - 600 BC (Later Vedic period) - Phase II.

Rig Veda is the earliest and written in the first phase. so the phase is named after this. No other book is available to study the first phase except Rig Veda. Only with this Rig Veda, this phase is studied.
The reason to study the AC in two phases is because after a 1000BC tremendous change came in culture. No matter Geography has a major role in it. Location of the first phase and second are different. By the end of the first phase, people began to move towards east Gangatic.

This civilization is developed by Aryans, who are believed to be foreigners (People from Central Asia). We call them Aryans because they speak Aryan. So it is a linguistic term. These people belong to the Nordic region.
These people composed a large number of Vedic literature this is called Vedic civilization. The first text was prepared by Aryan. Historic age began with the advent of Aryan.
700-800 cities/sites have been excavated. Archeologist gave this civilization name as "Painted Grey Ware". Because they found pottery of gray color and painted at many sites.
Vedic literature is .completely sacred, pious and not secular. Later this formed a pillar of Hindu religion.
Aryan literature can be divided into 8 parts

1. Vedas

2. Brahmanas

3. Aranyaka

4.Upanishads

5. Vedangas

6. Puranas

7.Upavedas

8. Ithihasa

Literature:

Vedas

Rig Veda has got 1028 hymns

- Divided into 10 Mandalams / Chapters

- The name of 10th chapter is Purusha Sukta and here one sloka refers about 'Caste System".

Yajur Veda - Rituals
Sama Veda - Deals with music
Atharvana Veda - Contains magical issues to deal with diseases (Mantras)

Brahmanas

These are '7' and all these deal with rituals.

Aitereya Brahmana
Shulapata Brahmana
Kausitika Brahmana

Aranyakas

Books related to forest living hermit i.e., Rishis, certain Aranyankas are appended to Brahmanas. So '7' Aranyankas added to '7' Brahmanas.

Upanishads

They are 108 in total in number

Chandogya
Gruhadranyaka
Mundokap ("Satya Meva Jayathe" comes from this)
Shwetheswatara
Jabalo

Vedanga

They are six in number

Siksha — Phonetics

Nirpkta — Etymology (Origin of words)

Vyakarna — Grammar

Chandassu — Metrics

Jyothishya — Astrology

Kalpa — Rituals

There are three parts of Kalpa.

Grihasutra — Home rituals (16 rituals are to be performed and maintained / described in Grihasutra). One such ritual is Upanayana. Dvija are 'Twice-born' and Ekaja are 'Single born'. The performance of Upanayana ritual is like being born once again. So who ever do this ritual is Dvija and rest who does not perform is Ekaja. The performance of this ritual is confined only to People/Male of Brahmans, Kshatriyas and Vysyas are only allowed for Upanayana. Sudras and women of 4 categories are not allowed for upanayana.
Stauthasutra — Public rituals
Suluva -Construction of fire altars (Sulva Sutra deals with the construction of fire altars and huge knowledge of geometry is dealt in detail).

Puranas

Puranas are 18 in number. These contain unbelievable mythological stories and huge historical knowledge. Purana speaks of the genealogy of ancient period kings.

Vishnu Purana
Padma Purana
Matsya Purana
Vayu Purana

Upavedas

Upavedas are 4 in number.

Ayurveda = Knowledge of life (Ayu = Life)
Ghandarvaveda = Music
Shilpaveda = Architecture
Dhanurveda = Archery

Ithihasas

Epics are 2 in number

Ramayana
Mahabharata (Bhagavad-Gita is an appendix to Mahabharata)

Later Mughal Empire

Unknown Modern Indian History

Later Mughal Empire

During 18thC in India, there was a lot of political tensions, turmoil, and disintegrations of Mughal Empire etc. This collectively provided an environment conducive forBritish to creep in Indian territories spreading their trade and actively increasing their power and root is Indian politics. Moreover, Mughal emperor after Aurangzeb were not so powerful and dynamic so their timidity and being indifference to issues given a boost and opportunity to various officers to usurp power and declare independence. Thereafter the disintegration of Mughals has started and it shattered into more than 1000 kingdoms. Their weakness led British to rise as the supreme paramount power in India.

Mughals after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707 their rule continued till 1857 but not so effectively. These rulers were only figured head and puppets in the hands of vazirs and other nobles.

Bahadur Shah:

He is also known as 'Alam Shah I' ruled from 1707 to 1712. Contemporary historian describes him as 'Shah-i-Bekhabar' (Heedless emperor).

Jahandar Shah I :

He ruled for only a year 1712 - 1713. His vazir 'Zulfik-Khan' was defacto authority. He abolished Jiziya once for all in India. He also introduced a new revenue system called 'Ijara'. A middle _man is appointed for collecting tax on behalf of the state and he Shall return the amount to state while he receives a commission. This is a tax intermediary system.

Faruk Siyar:

He ruled from 1713 to 1719. Two brothers in his nobility popularly known as 'Syed brothers' were defacto rulers. They were Syed Abdullah was vazir and Syed Hussain Ali Khan was Mir Bakshi.
In the year 1717, he issued a farmana to English East India Company. According to this farmana, EEIC shall annually pay z 10000 to Mughals and in return the company can carry customs-free trade in 3 subhas. They are Bengal Subha, Gujarat Subha, and Deccan.

Mohd Shah:

He is popularly known as Rangeela (pleasure-loving man) and ruled from 1719 to 1748. A contemporary historian says Sultan has neglected his duties, not only neglected least he didn't know what his duties are too. He is dancing with women, drinking etc. It was a great time for all dancers. Sultan himself was involved in Kathak dance and Hindustani musician.
Two powerful nobles in his court were Nizam-ul-Mulk and Burham-ul-Mulk. These two officers were rivals to each other not only on political aspects but also on regional grounds. Nizam was Sunni from Central Asia known as Turanis and Burham was Irani Of late these two came out Delhi and declared independence by founding 2 different kingdoms. This is how disintegration started in Mughal Empire.
1722 - Faizabad as capital 'Avadh' Kingdom was founded by Burham. This capital was later shifted to Lucknow.
1724 - Nizam-ul-Mulk went to Deccan and founded 'Nizam' state with Aurangabad as capital which Was later shifted to Hyderabad during 'Nizam Ali' reign. Nizam-ul-Mulk has come down to Deccan because earlier he served as governor of Deccan twice in the Mughal period. He has good acquaintances and with their support, he was successful in founding the Nizam state. Nizam-ul-Mulk had a title 'Asaf Jha'. These Asaf Jhais ruled certain areas of Andhra Pradesh, Northern Karnataka, and Marathwada region till 1948.
During Mohd Shah's reign in 1739, Sultan Nadir Shah of Iran invaded India. Nadir Shah was known as 'Napoleon of Iran', such powerful and fierce was that King. A Battle at 'Karnal'(Haryana) was fought between Nadir Shah and Mohd Shah looked like a nominal battle in which 'Mohd Shah' was defeated (One side was a powerful king and another side was a weak king). 'Nadir Shah' stayed in India 60 days plundering and looting the wealth of Mughals to his satisfaction. His booty was worth of 70 crores and also abducted Peacock throne and 'Koh-i-noor' diamond (Mountain of Diamond in Persia).However, Kohinoor diamond returned to India eventually which was taken away by British to England where as whereabouts of Peacock throne were unknown.

Ahmed Shah:

He was son and successor of Rangeela ruled from 1748 to 1754. He was a puppet in the hands of his vazir, 'Imad-ul-Muck' who was very cruel, ferocious and powerful man. Because of a dispute between vazir and sultan, Ahmed Shah was imprisoned and in his place, Alaingir II was made as Sultan. Alamgir ruled from 1754 to 1759.
Again due to a dispute between Alamgir and Ahmed, Alamgir II was killed and his naked dead body was thrown into a river. Not even the last rites were performed such is the fate of Mughal Sultan.

Shah Alam II:

He ruled from 1759 to 1806. No doubt he has a high-sounding title but personally he wasn't. He was in incognito for first 12 years taking shelter in Avadh for fear of Imad Shah. It is only after the death of 'Imad Shah' he returned and ruled. His territory at that time was confined to Delhi and Palam which was very insignificant and minute area. Contemporary historian says Alam territory does not go beyond Palam.
In 1803 - These territories of Delhi and Palam were also occupied by British and confining Alam to Red Fort. Britishers on humane and compassionate grounds gave the pension of 11.5 lakh to Shah Alam to meet his requirements etc. So Shah Alam II became the first pensioner sultan. Hereafter Mughal sultans were given pensions but not sovereign powers.

Akbar II:

He ruled from 1806 to 1837 unlike his ancestor Akbar he was very incapable and inept King. He was also pension receiving Sultan. As pension was insufficient to meet the expenses he made several petitions to EEIC to enhance but they didn't. So he decided to directly speak to Crown in England and get some remedy. He being very irrational and unwise. He sent a Bengal Brahmin who was western educated intellect. He conferred a title 'Raja' on him and thus he became Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
As per sultan wish, he went to England but didn't return. He died in England itself and his tomb is found at Bristol.

Bahadur Shah II:

The last sultan of Mughals ruled from 1837 to 1857. He was a good poet in Urdu and he wrote many shayris with pen name 'Zafar'.
In 1857, Sepoy revolt started against British regime (Sepoy were Indian those serving in British Army). These wanted to end the British reign in India and reinstate Mughal rule. So, they convinced Bahadur Shah II finally. Initially, he was reluctant knowing the power of British and fear of getting killed. He requested them not to indulge him in this movement but forcibly made the leader of the movement. British eventually suppressed the revolt and entered Delhi massacred all members of Mughal family not even child and women were spared. No root of Mughal family was spared fearing the inheritance later.
Bahadur Shah was captured in 1858 and put in Rangoon jail. In 1862 he died in the jail itself. He was buried there itself With this Mughals were completely gone once for all. A poet laments that poor Bahadur Shah II was so unfortunate that he could not get 6 feet land for his burial in his own motherland.