Maratha conquest

   

Maratha conquest

  • Chatrapathi Sahu ruled Maratha from 1707 to 1749. During his reign, he was only a dejure King in actual power was really enjoyed by his de facto Prime Ministers. This peshwas made this position hereditary.
  1. Balaji Vishwanath 1713 -1720
  2. Bajirao I (Son and successor of Balaji) 1720 - 1740 
  3. Nana Saheb (Moniker for Balaji BajiRao) 1740 -1761 
  • Eventually, Chatrapathi died in 1749 childless i.e. no legal heir to the throne. So Peshwa of that period Nana Saheb ascended the throne and continued as dejure power. By this Shivaji, the family came to end. Alter assuming power Nana Saheb shifted capital from Satara to Pune.
  • For fist fifty years of 18th Century Maratha's were very powerful and formidable empire but their administration, revenue, military policies which were defective eventually led to annexation by British of late.
  • A blunder by Maratha's was during conquest and plundering they moved towards North-West in 1760-1761, where they attacked a town 'Attock' in Afghanistan. During this the King of Afghanistan was a powerful ruler 'Ahmed Shah Abdali' and governor of Attock was his son 'Timur Shah'. Maratha's expelled Timur Shah and looted Attock which aired Abdali so immediately in retaliation he declared war against Maratha's.
Third  Battle of Panipat
  • This third battle of Panipat (1760-61)was  fought between Afghans and Maratha's where Marathas were out rightly defeated and this proved to a national disastrous to them. A historian Jatana Sarkar describes after effects of this war and loss very beautifully as
       ->  Two pearls dissolved, means two powerful commanders of Maratha army were killed and they were
  1. Vishwasa Rao (Son of Nana Saheb) 
  2. Sadashiva Rao (Cousin of Nana Saheb)
       ->  27 Gold Mohurs were lost; means 27 great leaders of Marathas belonging to different families were also killed. Few important families of Marathas were
  1. Bhonsle Family -- In charge of Nagpur region
  2. Sindiya Family -- In charge of Gwalior region
  3. Holkar Family -- In charge of Indore region
  4. Gaekwad Family --  In charge of Baroda region 
      ->  Count of silver and copper coins was uncountable. No family in entire Maratha kingdom that didn't mourn the loss of at least one person.
  • Abdali scored a terrific victory teaching Marathas lesson. Nana Saheb after the war news died in the same year broken heart. After this Marathas gradually became less powerful and the task of British conquering become easy. A scholar says that the final fruits of this war were inadvertently enjoyed by British,  In the conquest of Maratha Kingdom British fought three wars called Anglo-Maratha wars.

First Anglo-Maratha War
  • This war fought from 1775 to 1782 between then Governor General Warren Hastings and Peshwa Madhava Rao II.
  • Though British were in the position of winning they concluded this war with a truce 'Treaty pf Salbe'. This is a status quo treaty. Hastings did so because during the war they were also fighting 2nd Anglo-Mysore war so no matter he didn't want Marathas to join Mysore which will be a disastrous and formidable threat to British. So by diplomatic means, he concluded war with a ceasefire.

Second  Anglo-Maratha War
  • This war was fought from 1803 to 1805 between Governor General Lord Wellesley and last Peshwa BajiRao II. 
  • In this War, Marathas were defeated completely however territory was not annexed but only a certain type of command was enforced. Many treaties were concluded between families and etc.

Third Anglo-Maratha War

  • This war was fought from 1817 to 1818 between Governor General. Lord Hastings and Baji Rao II. This war is also called 'Pindari war' because British targeted Pindaris primarily.
  • Pindaris were robbers and looters and ferocious warriors. These accompanied Marathas in various wars and more over loot the annexed villages. These people caused huge law and order problem.
  • After this war, Peshwaish was terminated and Baji Rao II was sent to Kanpur as a pensioner.


Southern Dynasties - Chola Dynasty

   

Southern Dynasties - Chola Dynasty

Cholas Dynasty (850 - 1175)

  • They ruled with Tanjavore as capital.

Parantaka- I

  • Important King was Parantaka-I He took the title called 'Madurai Konda'. His two inscription of Uttarameru, TN issued in 10th C says about the local self-governments.
  • Village administration was completely autonomous. Village panchayats are called Sabhas or Ur. Extreme powers are given to these panchayats. Judicial powers are also given. These were highly democratic and for election 'Kundavali' is the system. adopted.

Raja Raja- I

  • Apart from Indian domains and territories he also conquered territories outside India.He captured Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Northern Srilanka.
  • His counterpart or the contemporary king Of Srilanka was 'Mahinda V'.He was defeated by Raja Raja - I and his capital Anuradhapura were captured and destroyed.
  • Cholas called their provinces as Mandalams. Northern Srilanka that.was captured by Raja. Raja was called as `Mummadichola Mandalam'.Raja Raja has a title called 'Mummadichola Deva'.

Rajendra- I

  • He was son and successor of Raja Raja- I.
  • He defeated Pala kings and annexed Parts of Bengal and Bihar.
  • He took the title of `Gangaikonda' (Gangai = Ganga).
  • Thereafter he built a new city called Gangaikonda.Cholapuram in Tamilnadu.
  • He also occupied Southern Srilanka and 'Mahinda-V' who was hiding there was brought as a prisoner to Tanjavore. Now complete Srilanka was called as Mummadichola Mandalam.
  • He also invaded Indonesia and defeated its king. Then he took another title called 'kadaram Konda'. Kadaram (now Penang) was capital that dynasty.

Kuluttonga- I

  • He ruled between 11-12th Century
  • During his reign, he lost control over Srilanka. Cholas were expelled. The Sinhala hero 'Vijayabahu the Great' who vanquished Cholas from Sri Lanka made every possible effort to restore what Cholas destroyed.
  • In 1077, Kuluttonga-I has sent a huge embassy to China to improve Trade and Commerce relationship. This embassy consists of 72 members.
  • He has also very diplomatic relationships with Cambodian Kings. His contemporary Cambodian king was Suryavarina-II.
  • During his reign, two social groups which were rivals to each have emerged. There emerged is unknown, though they are
      ->  Valangai — means Right hand in Tamil
      ->  ldangai — means Left Hander in Tamil
  • After the decline of Chola, there emerged two kingdoms in South.
      ->  Pandyan kingdom with capital at Madurai, Tamilnadu.
      ->  Hovasala kingdom with capital at Dwarasamudra(Present Helebiedu = Deserted Village).
  • During Cholas period, complete Eastern coast (Bengal to Tamilnadu) was under their control. This as called as Cholamandalam (and this was anglicised by Britishers as Coromandal.
  • Cholas were so successful because their Navy power was immense. They were the master of navy administration.
  • Cholas emblem was the tiger.

Literature

  • A great poet of this period was Kamban (circa 12th C). He translated Ramayana into 'Tamil'.
  • Another scholar Jayangondor he wrote 'Salingattu Parani' (Parani = conquest, Conquest of Kalinga). and this book is on Kuluttonga and his conquest of Kalinga.
  • Another Scholar. Sekkilar - he wrote Periyapuranam(a book on Shaivism).

Architecture 

  • Temples are considered the best of South India. All the temples are in Dravidian style.
  • The credit of strengthening the Dravidian style goes to Cholas. They have perfected this style by adding few new features like 
  1. Gopuram:- A Gopuram or Gopura is a monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple. They function 'as gateways through the walls that surround the temple complex. A gopuram is usually rectangular in form with ground-level wooden doors, often richly decorated, providing access. Above is the tapering gopuram, divided into many storeys which diminish in size as the gopuram tower narrows. Usually, the tower is topped with a barrel vaulted roof with a finial. Gopurams are exquisitely decorated with sculpture and carvings and painted with a variety of themes.Cholas built Gopurams in four directions.
  2. Mantapa: It is a pillared outdoor hall or pavilion for public rituals. In the Hindu temple, the mandapa is a porch like structure through the (gopuram) (ornate gateway) and leading to the temple. It is used for religious dancing and music and is part of the basic temple compound. The prayer hall was generally built in front of the temple's sanctum sanctorum (garbhagriha). A large temple would have many mandapas. Often the hall was pillared and the pillars adorned with intricate carvings.This has become an integral part of temple architecture.
  3. Vimana: A multi-storied structure over the sanctum sanctorum is called Vimana. This is also in semi-pyramidal shape.

 Few important temples

  • Brihadeshwara temple at Tanjavore otherwise called as Rajarajeshwara temple. This was built by Raja Raja Chola. This is UNESCO World Heritage Centre.Vimana of this temple is so impressive - it is 13 storyed and almost 196 ft. This is considered tallest temple in India till date. This was built in 1010, recently millennium anniversary celebrations were held. Brihadeshwara Tupula weighs about 80 tonne (Tupula - A monolithic stone/ device kept on Vimana).
  • Brihadeshwara temple at Gangaikonda Cholapuram. This is the 2nd best temple of Cholas. This was built by Rajendra I.
  • Kampahareshwara Temple at Tribhuvanam, Tn. It was built by Kuluttonga I.
  • Iravateshwara temple at Darasuram (Near Tanjavore). Built by Rajendra Chola II.
  • Kuranganatha temple at Srinivasanallur. This was built by Parantaka I.
  • Best sculptor of Chola period was 'Bronze Nataraja'. This is des described by scholars as 'Epitome of Chola art'. It has four hands. (Nataraja is a depiction of the Hindu god Shiva as the cosmic dancer who performs his divine dance to destroy a weary universe. The sculpture is usually made in bronze, with Shiva dancing in an aureole of flames, lifting his left leg and balancing over a demon or dwarf (Apasrnara) who symbolises ignorance. It is a well known sculptural symbol in India and popularly used as a symbol of Indian culture.)
  • Hoyasala were best at architecture and arts and their sculptures have become a benchmark. Best temples of this kingdom were
     ->  Hoyasaleshwara Temple at Dwarasamudra
     ->  Chennakeshava Temple at Belur.

  • These two are most beautiful temples of Hoysala architecture and they are built in Vesara Style. The outer panels are decorated with thousands of finely sculpted pictures.


Political System and Religious Changes in Aryan Civilization

   


Political System 

Phase I 

  • Every tribe has a leader who is elected i.e., it is not hereditary and is called `Rajan' a clear example of Republican way.
  • Sabha, Samithi (tribal assemblies) are very much there & Rajan is answerable to these assemblies.
  • Duties of Raja — Protect Jana (People), Pasti (Cattle). 
  • There is no concept of Janapada (Kingdom). No kingdoms were established (Pastoral economy, Nomadic life is the reason.
  • Fierce inter-tribal wars were fought for cattle-lifting but not for territory. The term for .war in Rig Veda is `Gavisthi'.
  • `Dasaragna' (Battle of Ten Kings) is the famous battle. mentioned in Rig Veda, this war was fought between Baratha clan and Kuru clan  along with his 9 allies as a confederation. Thus, the battle was fought on the banks of Parushni River (raavi). The king of Bharatha was Sudama and he emerged victoriously.
  •  [Bharatha son of Shakuntala & Dushyanta; Shakunthala daughter of Vishwa Mitra & Menaka; every time a reference about Vishwamitra is made, but nothing is known about him; these are the only characters created by Great Kalidasa but not historical figures.]
  • Various officers in administration and bureaucracy, these officers assist Rajan.
  1. Purohit
  2. Senapati
  3. Vrajapati (Pasture  lands in charge)
  4. Gramani (Head of a Village) 

  •  Source of income — Bali (it not a tax, but voluntary offering; tax concept hasn't evolved yet) 

Phase II 

  • Janapada - Territorial states have formed, many kingdoms emerged.
  • Monarchical System - It is not democratic but it is totally autocratic.
  • Tribal identity is merged into territorial identity
  • Primary goal is protecting territories
  • The tax system was introduced: Bagha (share) is the tax, Bhagadug - Tax collector in Later Vedic Period.  Sangrahitri is the treasure. 

Religious Changes 

Phase I 

  • Worship of natural forces — Plants, Earth, Sun, Moon, Water, Weather, Fire, and Wind
  • Anthropomorphic and human characteristic are attributed to Gods.
  1. Indra -- He is personification of weather as well as war god
  2. Varuna -- Water
  3. Agni -- God of Fire
  4. Tvastri -- Volcano
  5. Vayu -- God of Wind
  6. Surya -- Sun
  7. Sama -- Plant
  8. Aswins -- Gods are Medicinal Plants
  9. Marut -- Gods of Thunder Storm 
  10. Ushas -- Dawn
  11. Aditi -- Goddess of Earth
  12. Savitri -- Morning Light or Bright Light
  • Methods of worshiping was very simple; through compiling and chanting prayers and through offerings like vegetables, flowers, soma, drink (It is a ritual drink and in particular to India who is also known as 'Somapa'.
  • Rig Veda religion was highly materialistic. 

Phase II 

  • Three Supreme Gods, have emerged — trinity 
  1. Prajapati Later he became Brahma; Function -- Creator.
  2. Rudra -- He is a destroyer of Evils.
  3. Vishnu -- He the protector.
  • Religion became ritualistic and animals sacrifices.
  • Highly spiritual and speculative (nonmaterialistic).