Advent of British

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Advent of British

  • Next Europeans who came to India were English. This had a lengthy stay in India and of late ruled India.
  • 31/12/1600 a group of merchants started a private company called ' English East India Company ' (nicknamed as John Company) to trade with India and eastern countries.

  • Queen Elizabeth, I passed a charter on the same day stating that complete monopoly rights were given to East India Company over eastern trade for a period of 15 years. However, it was modified in 1609 by 'James I' successor of 'Elizabeth I' stating that monopoly period was extended indefinitely and this remains till further Royal orders. This monopoly remained till 1813.
  • Initial English setups in India
- Surat in 1608 was the first settlement.

- Machilipatnam, Andhra Pradesh in 1611 was first settlement in Eastern Coast and many other settlements later.
  • Unlike the earlier Europeans British came with a different strategy. As part of this, they established a headquarter each at Bombay, Madras and Calcutta. Each headquarter has its own governor and own territorial jurisdiction.
  • Initially, governors were independent of each other. Everyone has his own trade and headache. But after some time this caused a chaos so Kolkata governor was made as Governor General and other two governors were brought under his administration. Governor General Office was first made in 1773 and 'Warren Hastings' was first governor general.
  • Construction of Cities
- Madras :— In the year, 1639 site of Madras was procured by a British officer 'Francis De' from Venkatadri Naidu, a local officer in this territory. This city was named as Chennapatnam (after Venkatadri Naidu's father Chennappa) and eventually changed to Madras and now to Chennai again. British built a fort called 'St. George Fort'.

- Bombay :— In the year 1668 site of Bombay ay was given to 'Gerald Aungier' by British King 'John II' (In 1661 there was a marriage ceremony of Portuguese Princess 'Catherine Briganza' and British King 'Charles II' and as part of marriage dowry Bombay was given to King 'Charles II'. King 'John II' was successor so he inherited Bombay).

- Calcutta : — In the year 1690 a British officer 'Jab Chornock' purchases 3 villages in Bengal from Mughal Sultan 'Aurangzeb'. These 3 villages were merged into one to develop a city called Calcutta. Here they built a fort called 'Fort William' Seat of Calcutta governor is in this fort so it is called 'Governor of Fort William'. The villages merged were Govindpur, Kalikata and Satnauti.




Chandela Dynasty

   

Chandela Dynasty

  • Ruled over Bundelkhand (Bundelkhand has also known jaijak bhukti or Jejaka bhukti). The region is now divided between the states of Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh, with the larger portion lying in the latter.
  • Nannuk, the founder of the Chandela dynasty.
  •  According to inscriptions, he was the chief of his clan in the first quarter of the ninth century. Epigraphic records show that Khajuraho then called Khajuravatika - Bearer of Dates or Khajuravatica - Garden of Dates, was the stronghold of Nannuk and his people. Later on, his descendants linked their lineage with the Moon or with Chandratreya of the legend, in order to attribute some divine links to the origin of their dynasty.
  • Capitals of this dynasty

                  - Khajuraho, MP (In fact this is their cultural capital)
                  - Mahoba, UP Mahotsava Nagar

  • Best Niagara style temples were built by them. In fact, the most beautiful temples of India at Khajuraho were built by them.
  • Almost 80 temples were built by them in and around Khajuraho. Last only 25 are surviving today. Few of them are
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                 - Vishwantaha Temple 
                 - Kandariya mahadeva temple
                 - Chaturbhuia temple
                 - Lakshmana temple
                 - Devi Jagadamba
                 - Adinatha Temple (1st Tirthankara)
                 - Parsvanatha Temple.

These temples are beautifully decorated with many sculptures and mostly erotic sculptures of Mithunas (A mythological romantic couple).
  • The first inscriptions of Hindi were issued by these kings in 10th C. AD. These were the first kings to issue in Hindi.
  • One of the kings of this dynasty called Ganda; he fought with Ghazini and was defeated. 



Prehistoric Cultures - Chalcolithic Age

   


Prehistoric Cultures - Chalcolithic Age (3000 - 700BC)

  • Last stage of prehistoric age. In India, this age is seen between 3000 BC - 700 BC. Though some areas in India are still in neolithic age some areas have surpassed it and entered into chalcolithic age. First metal used by human beings was Copper (3000 BC) then Bronze (2500 BC) and later Iron (1000 BC).
  • Chalcolithic cultures were classified based on transition from use of stone tools to metal tools as 
  1. Pre-Harappan
  2. Contemporary to Harappan
  3. Post-Harappan
  • In India, many chalcolithic-Cultures were found in different parts. Like In Rajasthan - A Sothi culture was developed circa 3000 BC - Pre-Harappan. Some sites of this culture were found t Aahar (2100 - 1500 BC), Gulind, and Tambavathi. At Gulind houses were built with burnt bricks.
  • In Malwa region around 1700 BC - 1200 BC - Contemporary to Harappan. Some sites of this culture were found at Kayatam, Navadatoli, and Eran, Maheshwar, Nagda. Copper Bangles, Necklaces of precious stones and food grains are found here.
  • In Indo-Gangatic basin - OCP(Ochre colored pottery) culture was developed around 2000 BC -1500 BC Contemporary to Harappan. Some sites of this culture were found at Hastinapur, Nasirpur(UP), Gungeria (MP). At Gangeria 424 copper tools and 102 Thin Silver Sheets were found.
  • In Maharastra - Jorwe culture was developed around 1400 - 700 BC - Post-Harappan. More than 200 sites were found of this culture. Some sites of Jorwe Culture were found at - Nevasa, Chandoli, Inamgaon, Dainiabad(Biggest site). All sites are in Ahmednagar(Dist).
  • No chalcolithic site was found in South India.
  • Both Agrarian and pastoral practices were taken and it is a mixed economy. Large scale domestication and rearing of animals were carried out. Unfortunately though large herds of cattle were there but the dairy technology was absent.
  • Milk wasn't used in day to day life. This led to high rate of infant deaths. This phenomenon of infant mortality was evident from a large heap of infant skeletons found a Daimabad.
  • Shifting cultivation was practiced entirely. Wheat, rice,bajra, pulses and moreover fruits and vegetables were also cultivated.
  • Both sophisticated stone tools and copper tools were used. Village settlements have grown large in size. At Daimabad, it was estimated that 4000 people lived there. Writing skills weren't developed though some contemporary civilizations (with which these had good commercial contacts) have scripted. It can be said that most chalcolithic cultures were post-Harappan in chronology but pre-Harappan in technology.
  • Sophisticated pottery was in use. Painting of pottery was started at this age. At various chalcolithic sites, large numbers of grave goods were found indicating these people continued the beliefs of their ancestors in life after death. Moreover, fire altars were found indicating the performance of rituals. Ling worship was noticed at various places. Skeletons exhumed at Daimabad have no foot. they have been chopped before burying this indicates people fear of died turning into scripts(phasmophobia).


Dutch advent in India

   

Dutch advent in India 

  • Duchesse (Holland/Netherland) were second to follow of course only after a century of Portuguese advent.
  • In 1602, a new Dutch company 'Dutch United East India Company' was founded by few merchants to trade in India and other Asian countries. This was a private company.
  • Dutch has set up the trading station in India for carrying on business. Few important stations were
1.Machilipatnam in 1605 (first), Bimilipatnam, Nizampatnam,Pulicat in Andhra Pradesh.
2.Devanampatnam, Nagapatnam in Tamil Nadu.
3.Balasore in Orissa.
4.Chinsura in Bengal.
5.Surat in Gujarat.

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  • However, Dutch were much interested in Indonesia rather than India. So they didn't appoint any governor for India but Governor of Indonesia itself administered India.
  • 1690 headquarters have been shifted from Pulicat to Nagapatnam.
  • These Dutch have built Forts at their settlements. Few of them were
              - Fort Gustavus at Chinsura
              - Fort Geldria at Pulicat
              - Fort David at Devanampatnam.
  • In 1759 in Battle of Badera (Bengal) Dutch were expelled from India by British completely. This was, in fact, a vengeance act where earlier British were expelled from Indonesia.





Muslim Invaders — a little insight

   

Muslim Invaders - a little insight

First Invader:

  • Mohammed Bin Khasim (Bin means son of and Bintey for daughter of). He invaded India in 712 AD.

Second Invader: Mohammed Ghazini

  • Ghazini now in Afghanistan is the capital city of his empire.
  • He invaded India in 11th century AD.
  • He invaded India 17 times in the time span between 1000 - 1027.
  • All the 17 times he emerged victoriously.
  • He was a frenetic warrior and his military was strongest.
  • He came to India to loot wealth and satisfy his religious zeal.
  • He didn't have any political ambition or to annex the kingdoms or expansion of his territory. So his invades can be said as raids.

Third Invade:Mohammed Ghori

  • He invaded India more than half dozen times.
  • He wasn't victorious every time.
  • He had lost many battles.
  • Even his capital was Ghazini.
  • After Mohammed Ghazini deceased he claimed power and occupied Ghazini, but he doesn't have any relation to the early Ghazini dynasty. 
  • He invaded India with political ambitions.
  • He wanted to expand his territory and his sovereignty.
  • So he annexed all the kingdoms whenever he defeated them.
  • He left a significant impact on Indian Territory and history of India.
  • He started Muslim rule in India.
  • He was responsible for MuSlim rule in India.

Prehistoric Cultures - Neolithic Age

   


Prehistoric Cultures - Neolithic Age

7000 - 1000 BC onwards); (Neo — New)

  • The main feature of neolithic age is man moved from food hunting to food production. A British archeologist 'Gordon Childe' describes this age as food producing self sufficient economy.
  • Scholars calculated or divided this age based on the agriculture and domestication. The period in which both these activities were in full-fledged manner scholars observed that period as neolithic period and this is not uniform in all areas. In different areas at the different time, this period has started.
  • In the North West regions of India, neolithic features were found in 7000 BC and in Assam region these features found during 1000 BC (Indus valley civilization ended and Aryan started by this time).
  • There is no dearth of neolithic sites in India. First Neolithic site in Indian sub-continent is Mehrgarh, Pakistan dated 7000 BC - First agricultural practice took place in India and first to grow Wheat and Barley in Indian sub-continent. Grapes were also grown by them. Pottery wheel was first found in India at Mehrgarh, it means people of Mehrgarh were first to make wheel pottery in India. People of this place were first in World to grow Cotton(5000BC).
  • Another Site Koldihwa, Belan valley, updated 5000 BC - First people in the world to grow Paddy. Both sown and wild varieties were excavated at this site by the archeologists. 
  • The third site Burzahom Kashmir (near Srinagar) dated 2500 BC. These people constructed houses in pit-dwelling. There is connectivity between each house through- a tunnel. All staircases, walls are plastered with mud. People of this place have good commercial relations with people of Indus valley civilization. Pottery was being imported by these and timber was exported to Indus valley. Though having such relations people of Burzahom didn't adopt the culture of Indus valley which is very advanced.
  • Chirand, Bihar (near Patna) dated 1600 BC. Apart from stone tools, a large number of bone tools was excavated here. This includes a bone needle which indicates some sort of stitching activity was being carried out here.
  • South Indian Neolithic sites were circa 2000 BC. Sites found at various places like                            - In Andhra Pradesh - Nagarjunakonda, Utnur (Mahabobnagar district)                                        - InTamilnadu - Piyampalli                                                                                                              - In Karnataka - Maski(Raichur region), Brahinagiri, Piklihal, Kodekal, Tekkelakota.
  • In Tekkelakota excavations apart from stone tools, some gold pieces were also found. These people export gold to Indus valley people and had good commercial relations with them.
  • Neolithic sites of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh archeologists excavated 'Ash mounds'. Huge heaps of cow dung was burned once in awhile which resulted in these ash mounds. This indicates domestication was carried on a full scale in these areas. Sites were ash mound found were Piklihai, Kupgal, Kodekal all three belonging to Karnataka region and Utnur in Andhra Pradesh.
  • Neolithic people of South India majorly grown horse gram and ragi.
  • In North Eastern states neolithic age started only after 1000 BC. This is major due to climatic and geographical conditions of this area. Thick forests and continuous rains in this area are not conducive for cultivation. Some neolithic sites were found in Garo hills they were Meharland and Daojali Hading.
  • An important and prominent feature of Neolithic age is it was a mixed economy. Both agrarian and pastoral practices were carried out in a supplement to each other rather than substitutes. In North India cereals like Wheat, Barley and rice were grown and in South India ragi and Horse gram was grown.
  •  Cultivation practiced by them is known as shifting cultivation or slash and burn cultivation. As the man was able to produce enough food for his sustenance he abandoned  nomadic life and started sedentary life. Village communities have started. He began to experience social life and societies were slowly growing up. Eventually, in this process disputes have started which led to the emergence of some sort of leadership to redress the clashes, Lands doesn't belong to individual they were looked after/ held by a community whereas cattle belong individuals. Scholars consider this  period  of primitive communism.
  • Tool making technology has undergone a revolutionary change. Though tools they were made out of stone. Some sort of religious beliefs were among the people. 
  • At various neolithic, sites large number of grave goods were found indicating these people  believed in life after death. At few places, Terracotta serpents and Mother Goddess  figurines were found indicating their worship of snakes and goddess.
  • Scholars consider all these changes as revolutionary changes and this period itself revolutionary period.




Portuguese advent in india

   

Portuguese advent in India


  • In 1500, a new Portuguese company 'Estado Da India' was founded by few merchants to trade in India and other Asian countries. This was a private company. 
  • Portuguese has set up the trading stations in India for carrying on business. Few important stations were
               - Calicut in the year 1500(first), Cochin, Cananore in Kerala
               - Bombay, Salsetty, Bassain in Maharastra
               - Goa
               - Surat, Bhavnagar, Diu, Daman in Gujarat
               - Hooghly, Chittagong, Satgon in Bengal

  • A Governor is appointed to administer all these stations.
             - 'Francis De Almida' (1504 - 1509)
             - 'Albuquerque' (1509 - 1515) In 1510 he conquered Goa from Bijapur and in 1511 he                            concluded a friendly treaty with Sri Krishnadevaraya.
             - 'Nino De Cunha' - In 1530 he changed headquarters from Cochin to Goa.
  • In 1556 Printing press was first time introduced in Goa,India.  The purpose was simple to promote and spread Christianity. The first book to be printed in India was 'St. Peter's Charitha' in Marathi. (The first book printed in Telugu was 'Bible'. Benjamin Shulk, a German printed this book in Germany, not in India).
  • In the 17th Century, few new crops were introduced by these. They were
             - Tobacco (The then Mughal Sultan Jahangir banned this)
             - Maize
             - Chili
             - Papaya
             - Pine Apple
  • Various Christian Missionaries came to India to promote and promulgate Christianity and Gospels of Christ. 'Francis Xavier' a Portuguese Catholic missionary evangelized more than 6000 fishermen of  TamilNadu and Kerala. His mummy (preserved dead body) was kept at St. Bassillus Church in Goa.
  • For almost 100 years, there were no other traders from Europe to India. Portuguese were enjoying the complete monopoly of Indian trade.
  • Little later Portuguese were expelled from Bengal by Shah Jahan. Salsetty and Basin were captured by 'Bazirao I' of Maratha. Of late there were many battles between British and Portuguese. Finally, Portuguese were left with only 3 trading stations in India. They were Goa, Diu and Daman. These 3 stations were under the control of Portuguese till 1961. 
  • Portuguese were first to come and last to leave India.




Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

   

Gurjara Pratihara Dynasty

  • Gurjara is the name of race and Pratihara is the family name and these kings dominated parts of North-India and ruled from Kannauj as capital. 
  • Gurjar Pratiharas believe they were one of Agnikula clans of Rajputs, deriving their origin from a sacrificial fire pit (Agni Kundra) at Mount Abu.
  • Harichandra is said to have laid the foundation of this dynasty in the 6th century. 

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Mihira Bhoja:

  • Bhoja was a devotee of Vishnu and adopted the title of Adivaraha which is inscribed on some of his coins.
  • Bhoja's kingdom extended to Narmada River in the South, Sutlej River in the North-West river and up to Bengal in the East. It extended over a large area from the foot of the Himalayas up to the river Narmada. 
  • He was a bitter enemy of the Muslim invasions who, according to an Arab chronicler, Sulaiman, maintained a large army and had a fine cavalry.
  • Many temples made by him still survive. Teli Mandir, near Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh, marks the presence of Vishnu on earth. The temple's architecture, design, and layout feature an outstanding fusion of architectural styles. The roof resembles a Dravidian style while the decoration highlights the art of North India. He was a scholar and respected learned persons.

Mahendrapala:

  • King of this dynasty belonging to 10th C.
  • A Sanskrit scholar adorned his court by the name 'Rajashekara'.Few books of him are
               Karpuramanjira
               Kavyaniyamamsa
               Bhuvanakhosham
               Haravilasam
               Viddhasalabhanjika

Rajyapala:

  • King of this dynasty belonging to 11th C.
  • In the year 1018 — Mohammad Ghazini invaded Kannauj destroyed and looted the wealth.




Prehistoric Cultures - Mesolithic Age

   

Prehistoric Cultures - Mesolithic Age

1000 BC - 4000 BC (roughly); (Meso - Middle)

  • The second stage of Stone Age. The emergence of Homo sapiens. There is no dearth of sites in India belonging to Mesolithic age. Important Mesolithic sites are 

·         Birbanpur, Damodar valley, West Bengal.
·         Langhnag, Sabarmati valley, Gujarat
·         Adarrigarh, Madhya Pradesh
·         Bhiribetka, Madhya Pradesh
·         Bagor, Rajasthan
·         Chopanirnando, Belan valley, Uttar Pradesh
·         Sarai Nahar Rai, Belau valley, Uttar Pradesh
·         Nagarjuna Konda, Andhra Pradesh
·         Jalalahalli, Karnataka(near Bangalore)
·         Mayorbanch, Orissa



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  • End of Pleistocene Age and beginning of next geographical age called Holocene Age. Global warming started and the temperature of earth began to rise melting the ice blankets thus forming rivers and seas. So humans Were not forced to endure extreme hostile conditions and he was not left to the mercy of nature.
  • Climate has become conducive to the growth of flora and fauna resources. He was living a semi-nomadic life. Evolution of human beings into full-fledged homo sapiens occurred during this stage. During the later phase of this period, human started to domesticate various animals. Domestication was, not done in full scale and done at only a few places.

  • Moreover, this was not substituted for hunting but only, a supplementary. Hunting was still a primary source of food. Pottery was invented and this brought a revolution inhabitation methods. He started to live in artificially constructed houses.
  • Tools used by these people are known as microliths (1 cm - 8 cm) or pigmy tools. Tools making, tradition has changed and new technology has evolved. Tools were made of small stones instead of heavy stones, unlike his ancestors. These tools were hafted into a wooden stick and used as spears etc.
  • Hand-made pottery was found at Chopanimando, these people were first to use pottery in the world.
  • Prehistoric art was found at Blaimbetka. This place is a World Heritage Centre, UNESCO.
  • Skeletons of animals were found at Azamgarh and Bagor. People of this place were considered as first people to domesticate in India.
  • Evidence of earliest built houses in India was reported from Sarai Nahar Rai.
  • Skeletons found at various sites have marks and scratches caused by microlith attack. This suggests that during this period there exists some sort of intergroup conflicts. General hypothesis may be for cattle-lifting, fishing, grounds etc.