Political System and Religious Changes in Aryan Civilization

   


Political System 

Phase I 

  • Every tribe has a leader who is elected i.e., it is not hereditary and is called `Rajan' a clear example of Republican way.
  • Sabha, Samithi (tribal assemblies) are very much there & Rajan is answerable to these assemblies.
  • Duties of Raja — Protect Jana (People), Pasti (Cattle). 
  • There is no concept of Janapada (Kingdom). No kingdoms were established (Pastoral economy, Nomadic life is the reason.
  • Fierce inter-tribal wars were fought for cattle-lifting but not for territory. The term for .war in Rig Veda is `Gavisthi'.
  • `Dasaragna' (Battle of Ten Kings) is the famous battle. mentioned in Rig Veda, this war was fought between Baratha clan and Kuru clan  along with his 9 allies as a confederation. Thus, the battle was fought on the banks of Parushni River (raavi). The king of Bharatha was Sudama and he emerged victoriously.
  •  [Bharatha son of Shakuntala & Dushyanta; Shakunthala daughter of Vishwa Mitra & Menaka; every time a reference about Vishwamitra is made, but nothing is known about him; these are the only characters created by Great Kalidasa but not historical figures.]
  • Various officers in administration and bureaucracy, these officers assist Rajan.
  1. Purohit
  2. Senapati
  3. Vrajapati (Pasture  lands in charge)
  4. Gramani (Head of a Village) 

  •  Source of income — Bali (it not a tax, but voluntary offering; tax concept hasn't evolved yet) 

Phase II 

  • Janapada - Territorial states have formed, many kingdoms emerged.
  • Monarchical System - It is not democratic but it is totally autocratic.
  • Tribal identity is merged into territorial identity
  • Primary goal is protecting territories
  • The tax system was introduced: Bagha (share) is the tax, Bhagadug - Tax collector in Later Vedic Period.  Sangrahitri is the treasure. 

Religious Changes 

Phase I 

  • Worship of natural forces — Plants, Earth, Sun, Moon, Water, Weather, Fire, and Wind
  • Anthropomorphic and human characteristic are attributed to Gods.
  1. Indra -- He is personification of weather as well as war god
  2. Varuna -- Water
  3. Agni -- God of Fire
  4. Tvastri -- Volcano
  5. Vayu -- God of Wind
  6. Surya -- Sun
  7. Sama -- Plant
  8. Aswins -- Gods are Medicinal Plants
  9. Marut -- Gods of Thunder Storm 
  10. Ushas -- Dawn
  11. Aditi -- Goddess of Earth
  12. Savitri -- Morning Light or Bright Light
  • Methods of worshiping was very simple; through compiling and chanting prayers and through offerings like vegetables, flowers, soma, drink (It is a ritual drink and in particular to India who is also known as 'Somapa'.
  • Rig Veda religion was highly materialistic. 

Phase II 

  • Three Supreme Gods, have emerged — trinity 
  1. Prajapati Later he became Brahma; Function -- Creator.
  2. Rudra -- He is a destroyer of Evils.
  3. Vishnu -- He the protector.
  • Religion became ritualistic and animals sacrifices.
  • Highly spiritual and speculative (nonmaterialistic).


Mysore conquest and Anglo Mysore wars

   

Mysore conquest

  • Mysore province was initially part of Vijayanagara Empire created by 'Sri Krishna Devaraya' with Srirangapatnam as capital. Mysore was under the control of Nayakas (Governor of Vijayanagara of Mysore region are called Nayakas).
  • Wadeyar; a nayaka declared independence after the end of Vijayanagara Empire. From 1610 to 1947 Mysore was ruled by Wadeyar dynasty, of course, there were two interruptions in the rule from 1761 to 1799 by Hyder Ali and his son Tippu Sultan and 1831 to 1881 by British.

Hyder Ali

  • Hyder Ali ruled Mysore from 1761 to 1782. Hyder Ali had very humble background was very poor and illiterate person. He joined the wadeyar army as a petty soldier. Due to his efficiency and his skills displayed in various wars, he was appointed as 'Faujdar of Dindigal' (Dist level post). At Dindigal, he started a modern arsenal and increased his muscle thereafter dismissed then Wadeyar King 'Chikki Krishnaraya Wadeyar' and establishing Muslim rule in Mysore province. King was not killed but put in a sort of house arrest.
  • During Hyder Ali reign Mysore region was expanded in leaps and bounds. He followed a policy of annexation fighting many wars in the process of conquering. He conquered Krishna-Tungabhadra region from Marathas, Rayalaseerna up to Tirupati from Nizams and other territories in Tamil Nadu also. He was a man of religious tolerance. He gave large endowments to Balaji temple in Tirupati. He continual printing of Shiva and Parvati on the coins as done by Wadeyars earlier. Somehow there was a dispute between Hyder Ali and British which led to two Anglo-Mysore wars.

First anglo Mysore war

  • This war was fought from 1766 to 1769 among Hyder Ali and then Madras governor 'Lord McCartney'. Many battles were fought either losing or winning by one another. Both parties got exhausted and war concluded with 'Treaty of Madras' which says Prewar status quo to be maintained. After this, there was a certain relief in either party till next war was fought.

Second Anglo-Mysore war

  • This war was fought from 1780 to 1784 among Hyder Ali and First Governor General 'Warren Hastings'. During the course of war in 1782, Hyder Ali died due to Cancer, a natural death. So his son Tippu Sultan continued war. Both parties again got exhausted and war was concluded with a ceasefire 'Treaty of Mangalore' which says to maintain pre-war status quo.

Tippu Sultan

  • Tippu Sultan inherited the throne immediately after the death of his father and came to power in 1782 ruled till 1799. He was the most formidable enemy to British. He gave tough resistance to British than any other ruler. So he is popularly known as 'Sher-e-Mysore' (Tiger of Mysore).
  • He abolished Zamindari system; introduced a new calendar; and also printed a new gold coin (Mohur); also, set up modern industries; a network of highways was built especially in Malabar region. He  suppressed all Polegars (warlords); [Polegars are initially maintained Vijayanagara rulers in RayalaSeema region. Polegars are expected to maintain a certain army and these shall fight for the king. Initially, this was good but of late there were differences between each polegar and group rivalry, started that is factionalism. Each group attacked either of them in the process of retaliation. This is even now flourishing in this region].
  • Mangalore has become chief port of export for Spices of Kerala and Sandalwood of Mysore region. To promote foreign trade he sent his envoys to China, Iran, Turkey, Burma, France and etc.
  • He maintained very cordial relationships with French of Mahe as well as France. With their help, he started modernizing and strengthening the military. He became a member of Jacobin political party which in 1789 led French revolution. Being a monarch he didn't support a co-monarch but he supported people of France. He also celebrated the triumph of revolution by planting a tree named 'Liberty' at Srirangapatnam.
  • He was a literate and scholar in many languages, unlike his father. He had a great library in his palace where books of various languages across the world are shelved. British were astonished by his intellect skills and books were little later taken away by them to Calcutta.
  • He was also a religious tolerant man just like his father. He followed a policy of secularism. One best example was he had built his palace in the vicinity of Ranganatha temple (built by Vijayanagara rulers) so that the chanting of sanctum santorum could reach his ear in the dawn which is very good way to start a day. He also gave huge donations to Sringeri Sarada temple which were looted by Maratha kings later. Somehow there were no friendly relations between Tippu Sultan and British Which led to two more Anglo-Mysore wars.

Third Anglo-Mysore war

  • This was fought from 1790 to 1792. Tippu Sultan on one side and another side a confederation of Govern general Lord Cornwallis along- with Nizam Ali, Nawab of Nizam and Maratha King were fighting.[Nizmas were supporting British its - their territory was occupied by Hyder Ali and same with Marathas. This has been the with every ruler of Indian states who were rivals among themselves non-supporting to each other which turned advantage to British]. Tippu Sultan gave tough resistance but could not withstand finally defeated. Then war was concluded with a 'Treaty of Sriranzanatnam'. This is no status quo treaty but a humiliating treaty to 'Sher-e-Mysore'.
  • Few provisions were
- 50% of the kingdom was taken away and shared among the confederation. [Krishna-Tungabhadra region to Marathas, Rayalaseerna to Nizams and rest of remaining territory in 50% like Baramahal in Tamil Nadu were taken by British].
- 3 crore rupees of war indemnity shall be paid by Tippu Sultan in easy installments and as a guarantee, his 2 sons were taken to Bengal.

Fourth Anglo-Mysore war


  • Tippu Sultan was not a person of cowardice. He doesn't want to sit pressing his hands so he retaliated so as a result a war was fought in 1799. Governor General Lord Wellesley wants to exterminate Tippu Sultan completely as his any existence further would bring perils to British.
  • Reason British felt danger was because his relation with French and other Kings. Tippu had great international relations. He wrote letters to all anti-British rulers around the world. He wrote to Afghan ruler 'Zarnanshah' and also to Napoleon Bonaparte inviting them to India. If they had come British would have reduced to debris.
  • In this war, Tippu was not only defeated but also killed at Sri Rangapatnam. After his death, Wellesley out of huge empire of Mysore, Empire created a small state comprising Mysore, Srirangapatnam, and neighboring areas and made (Chikki Krishnaraya Wadeyar III as King. This area was very insignificant and rest territory 90% was annexed to British sovereign. Original ,territory of Wadeyars was given back to them but not the conquered parts. By doing so, British claimed themselves as righteous rulers. They only got rid of de facto and usurped rulers but not the genuine inheritors.
  • This transfer of territory was not unconditional and that is never British policy. Here Wadeyars were asked to sign a subsidiary alliance. In 1799, CK II signed and got Mysore territory.

Subsidiary Alliance


  • This is an imperial scheme developed by Lord Wellesley in the year 1778 and primary objective was to bring Indian states under the authority of British without waging wars. Certain provisions of this were
- Once it is signed, British shall give complete protection to that signatory state. The powerful military cover is given to Wing from any revolt or invade.
- In order to give protection, subsidiary forces are maintained in the capital exclusively for the protection of the signatory state.
- The entire cost of maintenance shall be paid by the signatory state either in cash to British or equal revenue generating land can be ceded to British. [Nizam Nawab has ceded Rayalaseema region in lieu of cash, so this region is referred as ceded even now].
- Signatory state shall surrender all foreign affairs to British like to wage a war a leave has to be taken from British authority; any treaty shall be through British and may others.
- Foreigners shall not be allowed without permission of British (Fear of Napoleon (who was raising a paramount power).
- To maintain all these things a British officer called 'British resident' shall be stationed permanently in capital. These residents involved in all administrative affairs whereas Kings became puppets.

- First, Nawab to sign was Nizam Ali of Hyderabad in 1798, then Chikka Krishnaraya Wadeyar III in 1799, Sultan Sadat Ali of Avadh in 1801, Peshwa Bajirao II of Maratha in 1802 and etc.

  • Finally Mysore state was conquered by British in the span of 30 years.



Mitakshara and Dayabhaga

   

Mitakshara and Dayabhaga

  • The Mitakshara is a vivrti (legal commentary) on the Yajnavalkya Smriti best known for its theory of 'inheritance by birth'.
  • The Dayabhaga is a Hindu law treatise written by Jirnutavahana (A Bengal Jurist of 12th Century) which primarily focuses on inheritance procedure. (Dayabhaga deals with the laws of inheritance based on Yajnavalkya Smriti/ Manu Smriti).
  • The Mitakshara, along with the Dayabhaga, became an influential source for British Courts in India. The Mitakshara was influential throughout the majority of India, except in Bengal and Assam, where the Dayabhaga prevailed as an authority for law (In Bengal (and post-independence West Bengal and Tripura) and Assam, Dayabhag,-a was the principal guide for laws on inheritance till the enactment of the Hindu Succession Act; 1956). The British were interested in administering the law in India, but they wanted to administer the law that already existed to the people. Thus, they searched for a text that could be used to help solve disputes among the people of India in manners which were already customary in the sub-continent. These disputes often involved property rights or inheritance issues.
  • Thus, the first translation of the Mitakshara was by 'Henry Thomas Colebrooke' (a Calcutta Supreme Court judge) in 1810 (because there was an immediate need in the British courts for the 'law' regarding inheritance that already existed among the people of India), and it was only this section of the text that gave the British insight on how to deal with inheritance issues. At that point, the Mitaksara held the status of a legislative text because it was used as a direct resource regarding inheritance in the courts of law in most of the India. Even he translated the Dayabhaga in 1810 through the use of manuscripts and Pandits.

Central differences between the Dayabhaga and the Mitaksara

The central difference between the texts is based upon when one becomes the owner of property. The Dayabhaga does not give the sons a right to their father's ancestral property until after his death, unlike Mitakshara, which gives the sons the right to ancestral property upon their birth.

Sons Inheritance

The son has no right to the father's ances- tral property until after his death, or the father's ownership becomes extinct through other means, such as being excluded from the caste or becoming ascetic_ This is in direct contrast to the Mitaksara, which gives the sons a claiin upon birth.

The Rights of the Widow

The widow succeeds the father's property rights on his death, even in cases where he held property jointly with his brother.

Ancestral Property

Dayabhaga states that the father is.the sole ruler of all property, both ancestral and personal. Unlike the Mitaksara, ancestral property is not seen as communal; therefore the father does not require the consent of his sons to act over the ancestral property_ The essential difference between the 'Dayabhaga' and the Mitaksara family is that the 'Dayabhaga' sees no difference between the father's total control over ancestral and personal property.

Personal Property

The father has the right to do as he wishes with his personal property in both the Mitaksara and the Dayabhaga.

Inheritance/ Succession

After the father's death, the sons will succeed his portion of the ancestral property. This can be done during the father's lifetime, but only if the father chooses to do so. The property is not communally owned by the family, as it is in the Mitaksara. Each son has the ability to do what he wishes with his portion of the property after his father's death.




Economy and Society aspects in Aryan Civilization

   

Economy

Phase -I

  • Pastoral Economy (based on animal domestication) is primary. Agrarian is on a limited scale, secondary.
  • In Rig Veda a food grain mentioned as 'Yava' (Wheat and Barley) was cultivated on a limited scale.
  • A metal was also used called 'Aya' (Copper and Bronze) .
  • Only Local trade & Commerce was carried on.
  • A Jem mentioned in Rig Veda called 'Suvarna Nishka'; it served the purpose of a coin, believed by the scholars.

Phase -II

  • Agrarian Economy is the primary reason because in this phase people moved towards Gangatic basic which are very fertile and virgin lands. Pastoral wasn't totally abandoned but on a limited scale.
  • Vrihi a food grain, known as paddy is grown here.
  • It was after 1000 BC iron began to be used this is called as 'Krishnaya' by later Vedic people.
  • Much improved Trade & Commerce.
  • Urbanization for the first time in the Indo-Gangatic basin has taken place. The first cities were
- Hastinapur, UP
- Kaushambi, UP (modern Kosam)
- Ahichachatra, UP (Modern Rae Bareli)

Society

Phase -I

  • Patriarchal joint family system. Senior male member is the head of the family and called Kulapa.
  • There is the class system but not a caste system. This hasn't emerged yet. Three classes were existing
                                 i.            Priest Classes
                               ii.            Warrior Classes
                              iii.            Commoners(Rest of the people) 
  • Social mobility and profession mobility freedom are given. Freedom to move between classes is there. Upward or downward mobility is possible. Professions are neither hereditary nor exclusive.
  • Aslokain Purushasukta, that deals with 'caste system' that belongs to Rig Veda, it was added later.
  • Interdining & interclass marriages much prevailed.

- Higher class/caste man marries lower class/caste woman it is called Anuloma (Hypergamous Marriage)
- Lower class/caste man marries higher class/caste woman it is called Pratiloma (Hypergamous Marriage)

Position of Women:

  • Women are given independence, equality, and freedom. Society was more mature.
  • Poly Andrey also practiced in Rig Vedic Period.
  • No kind of gender domination, no gender discrimination.
  • No child marriages.were allowed. There is a clear indication in one of Rig Veda hymn that marriage is allowed only after attaining puberty.
  • Women were equally literate and intellectual. More than 20 women scholars were mentioned in Rig Veda. A women scholar named 'Gosha' means 'rishi' is very much respected. She didn't marry (a spinster) and spent her entire life in pursuit of education staying at parent's house.
  • There are mentioning(s) of Sati but only symbolic not actually practiced.
  • No reference about widow marriages, but not restricted. This can be said from a word 'Niyogi' is found in Rig Veda it means - A Widow can marry the brother of the deceased husband (In English Levitate).
  • Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh was placed where 'Viragals' were found. Stone raised on tombs of soldiers dead in the war. They are also called hero stones. In Tamilnadu, these are called as 'Nadukkul'.

Phase II:

  • Chaturvarna (four castes) system emerged.
i) Brahmanas
ii) Kshatriyas
iii) Vysyas
iv) Sudras
  • Social mobility is completely checked. Upward/Downward movement is not allowed.
  • No Inter-dining is allowed.
  • Anuloma is legal but not Pratiloma.
  • The off-springs of the Pratilorna marriage are called 'Chandala' (Scavenger).
  • The dignity of women is no more seen. Complete suppression of women rights through various social evil practices.
  • Child marriage is practiced. A text of this period says 'ideal marriage of a bride is a 1/3rd age of groom'.
  • Sati became compulsory, widow marriages were tabooed.
  • Polygyny is accepted but not polyandry.